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With the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] signed in 1898, control of [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Guam]], and the [[Philippines]] fell to the United States (surrendered from [[Spain]]). Following this, the United States proceeded to conduct military interventions in Cuba, [[Panama]], [[Honduras]], [[United States occupation of Nicaragua|Nicaragua]], [[United States occupation of Veracruz|Mexico]], [[United States occupation of Haiti|Haiti]], and the [[Dominican Republic]]. These conflicts ended with the [[United States occupation of Haiti|withdrawal of troops from Haiti]] in 1934 under President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].
With the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] signed in 1898, control of [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Guam]], and the [[Philippines]] fell to the United States (surrendered from [[Spain]]). Following this, the United States proceeded to conduct military interventions in Cuba, [[Panama]], [[Honduras]], [[United States occupation of Nicaragua|Nicaragua]], [[United States occupation of Veracruz|Mexico]], [[United States occupation of Haiti|Haiti]], and the [[Dominican Republic]]. These conflicts ended with the [[United States occupation of Haiti|withdrawal of troops from Haiti]] in 1934 under President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].

⚫
The term "banana wars" was popularized in 1983<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Langley|first=Lester D.|url=https://archive.org/details/bananawars00lest/page/3|title=The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898–1934|publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|year=1983|isbn=978-0-8420-5047-0|location=|page=[https://archive.org/details/bananawars00lest/page/3 3]|url-access=registration}}</ref> by writer Lester D. Langley. Langley wrote several books on Latin American history and American intervention, including: ''The United States and the Caribbean, 1900–1970'' and ''The Banana Wars: An Inner History of American Empire, 1900–1934.'' His work regarding the Banana Wars encompasses the entire United States tropical empire, which overtook the western hemisphere, spanning both of Roosevelt presidencies. The term was popularized through this writing and portrayed the United States as a police force sent to reconcile these warring tropical countries, lawless societies and corrupt politicians; essentially establishing US reign over tropical trade. Hundreds of American soldiers and thousands of locals died in the Banana Wars.


==Origins==
==Origins==
{{Further information|Monroe Doctrine|Latin America–United States relations}}
{{Further information|Monroe Doctrine|Latin America–United States relations}}
[[File:Occupation of Haiti.jpg|thumb|200x200px|[[United States Marine Corps|United States Marines]] with a Haitian guide patrolling the jungle in 1915 during the [[Battle of Fort Dipitie]]]]
[[File:Occupation of Haiti.jpg|thumb|200x200px|[[United States Marine Corps|United States Marines]] with a Haitian guide patrolling the jungle in 1915 during the [[Battle of Fort Dipitie]]]]
U.S. motivations for the conflicts were largely economic and militaristic.


Most prominently, the US was advancing economic, political, and military interests in order to maintain its [[sphere of influence]] and to secure the [[Panama Canal]] (which opened in 1914). The United States had recently built the Panama Canal in order to promote global trade and to [[Power projection|project its naval power]]. US companies, such as the [[United Fruit Company]], had also had financial stakes in the production of [[banana]]s, [[tobacco]], [[sugar cane]], and other commodities throughout the [[Caribbean]], [[Central America]] and northern South America.
U.S. motivations for the conflicts were both economic and militaristic. Broadly, the US advanced its economic, political, and military interests in order to maintain its [[sphere of influence]] and to secure the [[Panama Canal]], critically strategic to global trade and naval power. U.S. companies, such as the [[United Fruit Company]], also had financial stakes in the production of [[banana]]s, [[tobacco]], [[sugar cane]], and other commodities throughout the [[Caribbean]], [[Central America]] and northern South America.

The term "banana war" (singular) in regard to U.S. policy dates from no later than March 1907, in reference to forces from the gunboat [[USS Marietta (PG-15)|''Marietta'']] landing in Honduras for the protection of American interests.<ref>"May Stop the Banana War"; {{cite news |title=GET INTO THE GAME United States Bluejackets In Honduras |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/93047846/ |access-date=7 January 2022 |publisher=Independence, Kansas Evening Star via newspapers.com |date=22 March 1907}}</ref> An editorial comment in ''[[The San Francisco Call]]'' in March 1910 cast the motivations for the U.S. role in the ongoing "banana war" of the [[United States occupation of Nicaragua|Nicaraguan revolution]] as almost exclusively for the preservation of its commercial interests in the region.<ref>"At the same time Mr. Taft discovered that American diplomacy had been used to give moral support to a revolution financed to forward private interests and ordered the withdrawal of the marines and warships sent in aid of the [[Juan José Estrada|Estrada]] revolution. In a word, the state department had been used to pull chestnuts out of the fire for people in Wall street. When that discovery was made the 'banana war' collapsed because its backers understood that the game was up. The history of the episode is not especially creditable to the diplomacy of the state department."{{cite news |title=Strange Episode of American Diplomacy |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/87828841 |access-date=7 January 2022 |publisher=San Francisco Call via newspapers.com |date=30 March 1910}}</ref> In 1921 the insertion of Marines into a border dispute between Panama and Costa Rica was deemed a "New Banana War".<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Marines Sent to New Banana War |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/127888231 |access-date=7 January 2022 |publisher=Concordia Blade-Empire, Concordia, Kansas |date=22 August 1921}}</ref>

⚫
The term was further popularized in 1983<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Langley|first=Lester D.|url=https://archive.org/details/bananawars00lest/page/3|title=The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898–1934|publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|year=1983|isbn=978-0-8420-5047-0|location=|page=[https://archive.org/details/bananawars00lest/page/3 3]|url-access=registration}}</ref> by writer Lester D. Langley, the author of several books on Latin American history and American intervention.


==Interventions==
==Interventions==

Revision as of 21:33, 7 January 2022

Banana Wars
US Marines with the captured flag of Augusto César Sandino in Nicaragua in 1932.
ObjectiveTo enforce United States interests in Central America and Caribbean
DateApril 21, 1898[a] – August 1, 1934
(36 years, 3 months, 1 week and 4 days)
Executed byUnited States
Outcome

The Banana Wars were a series of conflicts that consisted of military occupation, police action, and intervention by the United States in Central America and the Caribbean between the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 and the inception of the Good Neighbor Policy in 1934.[1] The military interventions were primarily carried out by the United States Marine Corps, who also developed a manual, the Small Wars Manual (1921) based on their experiences. On occasion, the United States Navy provided gunfire support and troops from the United States Army were also deployed.

With the Treaty of Paris signed in 1898, control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines fell to the United States (surrendered from Spain). Following this, the United States proceeded to conduct military interventions in Cuba, Panama, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. These conflicts ended with the withdrawal of troops from Haiti in 1934 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Origins

Further information: Monroe Doctrine and Latin America–United States relations
United States Marines with a Haitian guide patrolling the jungle in 1915 during the Battle of Fort Dipitie

U.S. motivations for the conflicts were both economic and militaristic. Broadly, the US advanced its economic, political, and military interests in order to maintain its sphere of influence and to secure the Panama Canal, critically strategic to global trade and naval power. U.S. companies, such as the United Fruit Company, also had financial stakes in the production of bananas, tobacco, sugar cane, and other commodities throughout the Caribbean, Central America and northern South America.

The term "banana war" (singular) in regard to U.S. policy dates from no later than March 1907, in reference to forces from the gunboat Marietta landing in Honduras for the protection of American interests.[2] An editorial comment in The San Francisco Call in March 1910 cast the motivations for the U.S. role in the ongoing "banana war" of the Nicaraguan revolution as almost exclusively for the preservation of its commercial interests in the region.[3] In 1921 the insertion of Marines into a border dispute between Panama and Costa Rica was deemed a "New Banana War".[4]

The term was further popularized in 1983[5] by writer Lester D. Langley, the author of several books on Latin American history and American intervention.

Interventions

William Allen Rogers cartoon depicting Theodore Roosevelt's Big Stick ideology
American warships off Veracruz in 1914
  • Panama: U.S. interventions in the isthmus go back to the 1846 Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty and intensified after the so-called Watermelon Riot of 1856. In 1885 US military intervention gained a mandate with the construction of the Panama Canal. The building process collapsed in bankruptcy, mismanagement, and disease in 1889, but resumed in the 20th century.[5] In 1903, Panama seceded from the Republic of Colombia, backed by the U.S. government,[b] during the Thousand Days' War. The Hay–Pauncefote Treaty allowed the US to construct and control the Panama Canal. In 1903 the United States established sovereignty over a Panama Canal Zone.[citation needed]
  • Spanish–American War: U.S. forces seized Cuba and Puerto Rico from Spain in 1898. The end of the Spanish–American War led to the start of Banana Wars.
  • Cuba: In December 1899, U.S. president William McKinley declared Leonard Wood, a United States Army general,[7]: 93–105  to have supreme power in Cuba.[8] The U.S. conquered Cuba from the Spanish Empire. It was occupied by the U.S. from 1898 to 1902 under Wood as its military governor, and again from 1906 to 1909, 1912, and 1917 to 1922, subject to the terms of the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1903) until 1934. In 1903 the US took a permanent lease on the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base.
  • Dominican Republic: Action in 1903, 1904 (the Santo Domingo Affair), and 1914 (Naval forces engaged in battles in the city of Santo Domingo[9]); occupied by the U.S. from 1916 to 1924.When a rebellion in the Dominican Republic, for example, damaged an American-owned sugar cane plantation, American troops were sent in, starting in 1916. They took over a small castle called Fort Ozama, killed the men inside and set up a military presence to protect their business interests.
  • Nicaragua: Occupied by the U.S. almost continuously from 1912 to 1933, after intermittent landings and naval bombardments in the prior decades. The U.S. had troops in Nicaragua to prevent its leaders from creating conflicts with U.S. interests in the country. The bluejackets and marines were there for about 15 years.[5] The U.S. claimed it wanted Nicaragua to elect "good men", who ostensibly would not threaten to disrupt U.S. interests.[5]
  • Mexico: U.S. military involvements with Mexico in this period had the same general commercial and political causes, but stand as a special case. The Americans conducted the Border War with Mexico from 1910–1919 for additional reasons: to control the flow of immigrants and refugees from revolutionary Mexico (pacificos), and to counter rebel raids into U.S. territory. The 1914 U.S. occupation of Veracruz, however, was an exercise of armed influence, not an issue of border integrity; it was aimed at cutting off the supplies of German munitions to the government of Mexican leader Victoriano Huerta,[10] which U.S. President Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize.[10] In the years prior to World War I, the U.S. was also alert to the regional balance of power against Germany. The Germans were actively arming and advising the Mexicans, as shown by the 1914 SS Ypiranga arms-shipping incident, German saboteur Lothar Witzke's base in Mexico City, the 1917 Zimmermann Telegram and the German advisors present during the 1918 Battle of Ambos Nogales. Only twice during the Mexican Revolution did the U.S. military occupy Mexico: during the temporary occupation of Veracruz in 1914 and between 1916 and 1917, when U.S. General John Pershing led U.S. Army forces on a nationwide search for Pancho Villa.
  • Haiti, occupied by the U.S. from 1915–1934, which led to the creation of a new Haitian constitution in 1917 that instituted changes that included an end to the prior ban on land ownership by non-Haitians. This period included the First and Second Caco Wars.[11]
  • Honduras, where the United Fruit Company and Standard Fruit Company dominated the country's key banana export sector and associated land holdings and railways, saw insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924 and 1925. The writer O. Henry coined the term "Banana republic" in 1904 to describe Honduras.[12]

Other Latin American nations were influenced or dominated by American economic policies and/or commercial interests to the point of coercion. Theodore Roosevelt declared the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904, asserting the right of the United States to intervene to stabilize the economic affairs of states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts. From 1909–1913, President William Howard Taft and his Secretary of State Philander C. Knox asserted a more "peaceful and economic" Dollar Diplomacy foreign policy, although that too was backed by force, as in Nicaragua.

American fruit companies

The first decades of Honduras' history is marked by instability in terms of politics and economy. Indeed 3 armed conflicts occurred between independence and the rise to power of the Carias government.[13] This instability was due in part to the American involvement in the country.[13]

The first company that concluded an agreement with the Honduras government was the Vaccaro Brothers Company (Standard Fruit Company).[13] The Cuyamel Fruit Company then followed their lead. United Fruit Company also contracted with the government through its subsidiaries, Tela Railroad Company and Truxillo Rail Road Company.[13]

Contract between the Honduran government and the American companies most often involved exclusive rights to a piece of land in exchange for building railroads in Honduras.[13]

However, banana producers in Central America (including Honduras) "were scourged by Panama disease, a soil-borne fungus (…) that decimated production over large regions".[14] Typically, companies would abandon the decimated plantations and destroy the railroads and other utilities that they had used along with the plantation,[14] so the exchange of services between the government and the companies was not always respected.

The ultimate goal of the contracts for the companies was control of the banana trade from production to distribution. The companies would finance guerrilla fighters, presidential campaigns and governments.[13] According to Rivera and Carranza, the indirect participation of American companies in the country's armed conflicts worsened the situation.[13] The presence of more dangerous and modern weapons allowed more dangerous warfare among the factions.[13]

In British Honduras (modern-day Belize) the situation was significantly different. Despite the fact that the United Fruit Company was the sole exporter of bananas there and the company was also attempting to manipulate the local government, the country did not suffer the instability and armed conflicts its neighbors experienced.[14]

Smedley Butler

Perhaps the single most active military officer in the Banana Wars was U.S. Marine Corps Major General, Smedley Butler, nicknamed "Maverick Marine", who saw action in Honduras in 1903, served in Nicaragua enforcing American policy from 1909 to 1912, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his role in Veracruz in 1914, and a second Medal of Honor for bravery in Haiti in 1915. After his forced retirement for making reckless statements, Smedley made a career of speaking to left-wing groups denouncing capitalism. His standard speech after 1933 was titled War is a Racket, where he denounced the role he had played, describing himself as "a high class muscle man for Big Business, for Wall Street and the bankers...a racketeer, a gangster for capitalism".[15]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The US declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898, but dated the beginning of the war retroactively to April 21
  2. ^ In December 1903, President Roosevelt put the number of "revolutions, rebellions, insurrections, riots, and other outbreaks" in Panama at 53 in the space of 57 years.[6]

References

  1. ^ Gilderhurst, Mark (1999). The Second Century: U.S.-Latin American Relations Since 1889.
  2. ^ "May Stop the Banana War"; "GET INTO THE GAME United States Bluejackets In Honduras". Independence, Kansas Evening Star via newspapers.com. March 22, 1907. Retrieved January 7, 2022.
  3. ^ "At the same time Mr. Taft discovered that American diplomacy had been used to give moral support to a revolution financed to forward private interests and ordered the withdrawal of the marines and warships sent in aid of the Estrada revolution. In a word, the state department had been used to pull chestnuts out of the fire for people in Wall street. When that discovery was made the 'banana war' collapsed because its backers understood that the game was up. The history of the episode is not especially creditable to the diplomacy of the state department.""Strange Episode of American Diplomacy". San Francisco Call via newspapers.com. March 30, 1910. Retrieved January 7, 2022.
  4. ^ "U.S. Marines Sent to New Banana War". Concordia Blade-Empire, Concordia, Kansas. August 22, 1921. Retrieved January 7, 2022.
  5. ^ a b c d Langley, Lester D. (1983). The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898–1934. University Press of Kentucky. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8420-5047-0.
  6. ^ Roosevelt, Theodore (December 7, 1903). Theodore Roosevelt's Third State of the Union Address  – via Wikisource.
  7. ^ McCallum, Jack (2006). Leonard Wood: Rough Rider, Surgeon, Architect of American Imperialism. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5699-7 – via Google Books.
  8. ^ Musicant, Ivan (1991). The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish–American War to the Invasion of Panama. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-588210-2.
  9. ^ "US Military and Clandestine Operations in Foreign Countries – 1798–Present". Global Policy Forum. 2005. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020.
  10. ^ a b Hickman, Kennedy (August 4, 2015). "Mexican Revolution: Battle of Veracruz". ThoughtCo. Dotdash. Archived from the original on November 14, 2020. Retrieved March 17, 2016.
  11. ^ Hubert, Giles A. (January 1947). "War and the Trade Orientation of Haiti". Southern Economic Journal. 13 (3): 276–84. doi:10.2307/1053341. JSTOR 1053341 – via JSTOR.
  12. ^ "Where did banana republics get their name?". The Economist. Economist Group. November 21, 2013. Archived from the original on November 14, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2016.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h Rivera, Miguel Cáceres; Carranza, Sucelinda Zelaya (2005). "Honduras. Productive security and economic growth: the economic function of the cariato". Yearbook of Central American Studies. 31: 49–91. ISSN 0377-7316.
  14. ^ a b c Moberg, Mark (1996). "Crown Colony as Banana Republic: The United Fruit Company in British Honduras, 1900-1920". Journal of Latin American Studies. 28 (2). Cambridge University Press: 357–381. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00013043. JSTOR 157625 – via JSTOR.
  15. ^ Butler, Smedley (1933). War is a Racket (Speech). US.

Further reading

  • Anthony, Constance G. "American democratic interventionism: Romancing the iconic Woodrow Wilson." International Studies Perspectives 9.3 (2008): 239-253 abstract.
  • Weeks, Gregory B. U.S. and Latin American relations (John Wiley & Sons, 2015).

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Banana_Wars&oldid=1064340651"