Christianity in China: Difference between revisions
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[[Image:Lords Prayer in Chinese.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Lord's Prayer in [[Chinese language]].]] |
[[Image:Lords Prayer in Chinese.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Lord's Prayer in [[Chinese language]].]] |
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[[Image:Open Air Preaching WB.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Missionary preaching in China using [[The Wordless Book]]]] |
[[Image:Open Air Preaching WB.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Missionary preaching in China using [[The Wordless Book]]]] |
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'''[[Christianity]] in China''' has developed since at least the |
'''[[Christianity]] in China''' has developed since at least the 7th century AD. The introduction of [[Nestorianism]], a Christian [[religious denomination|denomination]], around 635 is considered by some to be the first entry of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[religion]] into China. However, recent discoveries seem to put the first diffusion of Christianity in China during the [[1st century AD]].<ref>[http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/news/737293/posts Christianity arrives in China 550 years earlier: new evidence]</ref> Today, the Christian population in China comprises [[Protestantism in China|Protestants]], [[Catholicism in China|Catholics]], and a small number of [[Chinese Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]]. |
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The government census enumerates 4 million Catholics and 10 million Protestants<ref>http://www.china.org.cn/e-china/religions/belief.htm</ref>. However, independent estimates have ranged from 40 million<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm</ref>, to 100 million<ref>http://www.cbn.com/spirituallife/BibleStudyAndTheology/Discipleship/persecution_112702.aspx</ref>, to 130 million Christians in January 2007 (out of a total population of at least 1.3 billion people).<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/rn/religionreport/stories/2007/1998728.htm</ref><ref>http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90133.htm</ref> |
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⚫ | In October 2007 two surveys were conducted to estimate the number of Christians in China. One poll was held by Protestant missionary [[Werner Burklin]], the other one by [[Liu Zhongyu]] from East China Normal University in Shanghai. The surveys were conducted independently and during different periods, but they reached the same results.<ref>http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm</ref><ref>http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Nov07/Art_Nov07_17.html</ref> According to these studies, there are roughly 54 million Christians in China, of which 39 million are Protestants and 14 million are Catholics.<ref>http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm</ref><ref>http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Nov07/Art_Nov07_17.html</ref><ref>http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm</ref><ref>http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Nov07/Art_Nov07_17.html</ref> |
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⚫ | Christianity took root in a significant way during the [[Qing Dynasty]], and although it has remained a minority religion in China, it has had significant historical impact. The [[Taiping Rebellion]] was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the [[Boxer Rebellion]] was in part a reaction against Christianity in China. Christians in China established the first clinics and hospitals<ref>Gulick, (1975) pp. 561-562</ref>, provided the first training for nurses, opened the first modern schools, worked to abolish practices such as [[foot binding]] <ref>Burgess, (1957) pp. 47</ref>, and the unjust treatment of maidservants, as well as launching charitable work and distributing food to the poor. They also opposed the [[opium]] trade<ref>Austin, (2007) </ref> and brought treatment to many who were addicted. Some of the early leaders of the [[Chinese Republic]], such as [[Sun Yat-sen]] were converts to Christianity and were influenced by its teachings<ref>Soong, (1997) p. 151-178</ref>. |
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As of 2007, indigenous Chinese Christianity is growing in contrast to Christian adherence in the West, where it is in decline in many cases<ref>[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-977347/Counting-Christians-in-China-a.html</ref>. Nicholas D. Kristof, a columnist of the New York Times wrote on June 25, 2006, "Although China bans foreign missionaries and sometimes harasses and imprisons Christians, especially in rural areas, Christianity is booming in China. <ref>http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5717468/Church-growth-in-China-Century.html</ref>" In 1800 there were 250,000 baptized Roman Catholics, but no known Protestant believers out of an estimated 362 million Chinese. By 1949, out of an estimated population of 450 million, there were just over 500,000 baptized Protestant Christians.<ref>Latourette, (1929)</ref> Anonymous internet columnist [[Spengler (columnist)|Spengler]] commented in 2007 that Christianity "will have become a Sino-centric religion two generations from now."<ref name="Fulcrum">{{cite web|title= |
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Christianity finds a fulcrum in Asia|publisher=Asia Times Online|date=August 7, 2007|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/IH07Ad03.html|accessdate=2007-10-25}}</ref> |
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==Pre-modern History== |
==Pre-modern History== |
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In the early 18th century, the [[Chinese Rites controversy]], a dispute within the [[Roman Catholic Church]], arose over whether Chinese folk religion rituals and offerings to their ancestors constituted [[idolatry]]. The Pope ultimately ruled against tolerating the continuation of these practices among Chinese Roman Catholic converts. Prior to this, the Jesuits had enjoyed considerable influence at court, but with the issuing of the papal bull, the emperor circulated edicts banning Christianity. |
In the early 18th century, the [[Chinese Rites controversy]], a dispute within the [[Roman Catholic Church]], arose over whether Chinese folk religion rituals and offerings to their ancestors constituted [[idolatry]]. The Pope ultimately ruled against tolerating the continuation of these practices among Chinese Roman Catholic converts. Prior to this, the Jesuits had enjoyed considerable influence at court, but with the issuing of the papal bull, the emperor circulated edicts banning Christianity. |
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===Effects of Christianity in China=== |
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Christianity took root in a significant way during the [[Qing Dynasty]], when was founded the movement of [[Taiping Christianity]]. It was said to have several million adherents, of which the vast majority were peasants. They founded a [[theocracy|theocratic]] kingdom opposing the Qing rule. At their height they controlled over one-fourth of China. Taiping Christians undertook the so called [[Taiping Rebellion]], that caused the death of between 20 and 30 million people<ref>http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CHING/TAIPING.HTM</ref>. In addition, as a result of social disorders caused by the rebellion, an estimated other 60 million Chinese died in the following periods.<ref>http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CHING/TAIPING.HTM</ref> |
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Taiping Christians persecuted followers of other religions ([[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] and [[Chinese folk religion|folkloric practices]]). The Taiping leader, [[Hong Xiuquan]], declared himself "slayer of demons", send by the [[Christian God]] to "eradicate demons and demon worship".<ref>http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CHING/TAIPING.HTM</ref> Organized into a military society, Taiping Christians destroyed temples, monasteries and religious iconography in southern China.<ref>http://aer2.sbc.edu.hk/~wcc/China/TPIDEO.DOC</ref><ref>http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576710/Taiping_Rebellion.html</ref><ref>http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CHING/TAIPING.HTM</ref> |
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⚫ | Christian |
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A 2004 study by [[Eric Robert]] discusses the opposition that Christian missionaries have traditionally held toward [[vegetarianism]] as a strategy to counter the influence of [[Buddhism]], and as part of their effort to convert Chinese "Heathens" (as Buddhists and [[Taoists]] were called by missionaries) to [[Christianity]].<ref>http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/positions/v012/12.2reinders.html</ref> |
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==Modern Age== |
==Modern Age== |
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{{main|Chinese Orthodox Church}} |
{{main|Chinese Orthodox Church}} |
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There are a small number of adherents of [[Russian Orthodoxy]] in northern China, predominantly in [[Harbin]]. The first mission was undertaken by Russians in the 17th century. Orthodox Christianity is also practiced by the small [[Russians|Russian]] ethnic minority in China. |
There are a small number of adherents of [[Russian Orthodoxy]] in northern China, predominantly in [[Harbin]]. The first mission was undertaken by Russians in the 17th century. Orthodox Christianity is also practiced by the small [[Russians|Russian]] ethnic minority in China. |
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===Contemporary trends=== |
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Chinese Christian [[Brother Yun]]'s book "''The Heavenly Man''" achieved the Christian Book of the Year award in the [[USA]] in 2003. The book describes Yun's life from his call to preach the gospel across China and the enlargement of the house church movement. |
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Estimates of Christians in China are difficult to obtain because of the numbers of Christians unwilling to reveal their beliefs, the hostility of the national government towards some Christian sects, and difficulties in obtaining accurate statistics on house churches. |
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Recent estimated figures of the number of Christians in China are varying. The official figure in 2002, which consists of members from Official [[Protestant]] churches, is about 15 million, while some estimates on members of [[Chinese house church]] vary from 50 million to 100 million. Kiven Choy stated, in a Chinese weekly newspaper in Hong Kong, that the correct number of Protestants in China should be at around 20 million, while Time Magazine recently reported 65 million. [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,1229123,00.html] |
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There are 4 million members of the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association and an estimated 12 million members of the underground Roman Catholic Church in China as of 2006. [http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2006/05/07/2003306636] |
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===International visitors and Christianity=== |
===International visitors and Christianity=== |
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American officials visiting China have on multiple occasions visited Chinese churches, including [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]], who attended one of [[Beijing]]'s five officially-recognized Protestant churches during a [[November 2005]] Asia tour. [http://www.newsday.com/news/nationworld/world/ny-wobush1120,0,5941040.story?coll=ny-world-big-pix] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/19/AR2005111901286_pf.html]. [[Secretary of State]] [[Condoleezza Rice]] attended [[Palm Sunday]] services in Beijing in 2005. |
American officials visiting China have on multiple occasions visited Chinese churches, including [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]], who attended one of [[Beijing]]'s five officially-recognized Protestant churches during a [[November 2005]] Asia tour. [http://www.newsday.com/news/nationworld/world/ny-wobush1120,0,5941040.story?coll=ny-world-big-pix] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/19/AR2005111901286_pf.html]. [[Secretary of State]] [[Condoleezza Rice]] attended [[Palm Sunday]] services in Beijing in 2005. |
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===Demographics=== |
===Demographics/Geography=== |
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It is not exactly known how many Chinese consider themselves Christian. The Chinese government states that only 1% ( |
It is not exactly known how many Chinese consider themselves Christian. The Chinese government states that only 1% ''(13 million)'' <ref name=BBC1>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm</ref> of the population is Christian while the Chinese Embassy states that 10 Million ''(0.75%)''<ref>http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/zjxy/t36493.htm</ref> are Christian A recent Chinese poll revealed by the BBC showed that approximately 40 million Christians live in China <ref name=BBC1/> |
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⚫ | In |
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⚫ | A relatively large proportion of Christians are concentrated in [[Hebei]] [[province]], in particular [[Catholics]]. Many internationally-reported arrests of Catholic leaders have occurred in that province. Hebei is also home to the town of [[Donglu]], site of an alleged [[Marian apparition]] and pilgrimage center. |
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A 2003 study by [[Tony Lambert]] examines the problems of false statistics.<ref>http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-977347/Counting-Christians-in-China-a.html</ref> It says that high numbers of Christians in China are not backed by reliable and documented evidence,<ref>http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-977347/Counting-Christians-in-China-a.html</ref> and they started to be spread in 1980s because of sociopolitical issues.<ref>http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-977347/Counting-Christians-in-China-a.html</ref> |
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The magazine [[Christianity Today]], brought out that demographers estimate that an average 200,000{{Fact|date=September 2007}} Chinese people convert to Christianity every year, meaning that it is the [[fastest growing religion]] in the nation, and has outpaced the Communist Party's population of 70 million people. |
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== Christianity in Tibet == |
== Christianity in Tibet == |
Revision as of 19:32, 25 December 2007
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This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2007) |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Lords_Prayer_in_Chinese.jpg/200px-Lords_Prayer_in_Chinese.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Open_Air_Preaching_WB.jpg/200px-Open_Air_Preaching_WB.jpg)
Christianity in China has developed since at least the 7th century AD. The introduction of Nestorianism, a Christian denomination, around 635 is considered by some to be the first entry of the Christian religion into China. However, recent discoveries seem to put the first diffusion of Christianity in China during the 1st century AD.[1] Today, the Christian population in China comprises Protestants, Catholics, and a small number of Orthodox Christians.
The government census enumerates 4 million Catholics and 10 million Protestants[2]. However, independent estimates have ranged from 40 million[3], to 100 million[4], to 130 million Christians in January 2007 (out of a total population of at least 1.3 billion people).[5][6]
In October 2007 two surveys were conducted to estimate the number of Christians in China. One poll was held by Protestant missionary Werner Burklin, the other one by Liu Zhongyu from East China Normal University in Shanghai. The surveys were conducted independently and during different periods, but they reached the same results.[7][8] According to these studies, there are roughly 54 million Christians in China, of which 39 million are Protestants and 14 million are Catholics.[9][10][11][12]
Christianity took root in a significant way during the Qing Dynasty, and although it has remained a minority religion in China, it has had significant historical impact. The Taiping Rebellion was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the Boxer Rebellion was in part a reaction against Christianity in China. Christians in China established the first clinics and hospitals[13], provided the first training for nurses, opened the first modern schools, worked to abolish practices such as foot binding [14], and the unjust treatment of maidservants, as well as launching charitable work and distributing food to the poor. They also opposed the opium trade[15] and brought treatment to many who were addicted. Some of the early leaders of the Chinese Republic, such as Sun Yat-sen were converts to Christianity and were influenced by its teachings[16].
As of 2007, indigenous Chinese Christianity is growing in contrast to Christian adherence in the West, where it is in decline in many cases[17]. Nicholas D. Kristof, a columnist of the New York Times wrote on June 25, 2006, "Although China bans foreign missionaries and sometimes harasses and imprisons Christians, especially in rural areas, Christianity is booming in China. [18]" In 1800 there were 250,000 baptized Roman Catholics, but no known Protestant believers out of an estimated 362 million Chinese. By 1949, out of an estimated population of 450 million, there were just over 500,000 baptized Protestant Christians.[19] Anonymous internet columnist Spengler commented in 2007 that Christianity "will have become a Sino-centric religion two generations from now."[20]
Pre-modern History
Earliest period
Traditional Christian thought suggested that St. Thomas, known as "the Apostle of India" or possibly St. Bartholomew was the first to spread the Christian gospel in China.
Medieval period
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/VoyagesOfRabbanBarSauma.jpg/220px-VoyagesOfRabbanBarSauma.jpg)
The 13th century saw a Franco-Mongol alliance with exchange of ambassadors and even military collaboration in the Holy Land. The Christian Chinese Mongol, Rabban Bar Sauma, born in Beijing, visited the courts of Europe in 1287-1288. In 1289, Franciscan friars from Europe initiated mission work in China. For about a century they worked in parallel with the Nestorian Christians. The Franciscan mission collapsed in 1368, as the Ming Dynasty set out to abolish Christianity (Nestorian and Catholic) in China.
Post-Reformation
The first Jesuit attempt to reach China was made in 1552 by Francis Xavier, but he died the same year on the Chinese island of Shangchuan, without having reached the mainland. In 1582, Jesuits once again initiated mission work in China, introducing Western science, mathematics, and astronomy. One of these missionaries was Matteo Ricci.
In the early 18th century, the Chinese Rites controversy, a dispute within the Roman Catholic Church, arose over whether Chinese folk religion rituals and offerings to their ancestors constituted idolatry. The Pope ultimately ruled against tolerating the continuation of these practices among Chinese Roman Catholic converts. Prior to this, the Jesuits had enjoyed considerable influence at court, but with the issuing of the papal bull, the emperor circulated edicts banning Christianity.
Modern Age
Missionary Expansion (1807-1900)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Robert_Morrison_1782-1834.jpg/125px-Robert_Morrison_1782-1834.jpg)
Robert Morrison, regarded among Protestants as being the first Christian missionary to China arrived in Macao on 4 September, 1807. Morrison produced a Chinese translation of the Bible. He also compiled a Chinese dictionary for the use of Westerners. The Bible translation took twelve years and the compilation of the dictionary, sixteen years.
During the 1840s, Western missionaries spread Christianity rapidly through the coastal cities that were open to foreign trade; the bloody Taiping Rebellion was connected in its origins to the influence of some missionaries on the leader Hong Xiuquan, who has since been hailed as a heretic by most Christian groups, but as a proto-communist peasant militant by the Chinese Communist Party.
In 1860, Protestant missions were confined to five coastal cities. By the end of the century, however, the picture had vastly changed. Scores of new missionary societies had been organized, and several thousand missionaries were working in all parts of China. This amazing transformation can be largely traced to the excitement caused by the 1859 Awakening in Britain and the example of J. Hudson Taylor (1832-1905). By 1865 when the China Inland Mission began, there were already thirty different Protestant groups at work in China[21], however the diversity of denominations represented did not equate to more missionaries on the field. In the seven provinces in which Protestant missionaries had already been working, there were an estimated 204 million people with only 91 workers, while there were eleven other provinces in inland China with a population estimated at 197 million, for whom absolutely nothing had been attempted[22]. Besides the London Missionary Society, and the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, there were missionaries affiliated with Baptists, Southern Baptists, Presbyterians, Methodists, Episcopalians, and Wesleyans. Most missionaries came from England, the United States, Sweden, France, Germany, Switzerland, or Holland[23].
In addition to the publication and distribution of Christian literature and Bibles, the Protestant Christian missionary movement in China furthered the dispersion of knowledge with other printed works of history and science. As the missionaries went to work among the Chinese, they established and developed schools and introduced the latest techniques in medicine[24]. The mission schools were viewed with some suspicion by the traditional Chinese teachers, but they differed from the norm by offering a basic education to poor Chinese, both boys and girls, who had no hope of learning at a school before the days of the Chinese Republic [25].
In 1854, Hudson Taylor arrived in China. Taylor has been called one of the significant figures in Chinese history in the 1800s The China Inland Mission was the largest mission agency in China and it is estimated that Taylor was responsible for more people being converted to Christianity than at any other time since Paul the Apostle brought Christian teaching to Europe. It was Dixon Edward Hoste, the successor to Hudson Taylor, who originally expressed the self-governing principles of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement, at the time he was articulating the goal of the China Inland Mission to establish an indigenous Chinese church that was free from foreign control.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/CIM_Gospel_Tract.jpg/150px-CIM_Gospel_Tract.jpg)
British and American denominations, such as the British Methodist Church, continued to send missionaries until they were prevented from doing so following the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Protestant missionaries played an extremely important role in introducing knowledge of China to the United States and the United States to China. The book The Small Woman and film Inn of the Sixth Happiness tell the story of one such missionary, Gladys Aylward.
It is recorded that the first martyrdom of a Protestant Christian Chinese occurred in 1871 in Poklo, Guangdong. Che Kam Kong (or Chea Kunkong) visited Hong Kong in 1865, and in 1866 became a Christian. He proselytized extensively over the next five years, allegedly bringing about the conversion of over a hundred people in Poklo. Town elders, concerned with this abandonment of tradition, warned Che to stop, yet he refused. He was kidnapped and tortured in 1871 in an attempt to force him to give up his beliefs. He is said to have declared, "You may kill my body but you cannot destroy my soul". He was taken outside the city gates and killed; his body was cut up and thrown into a nearby river.
One of the most well-known Protestant missionaries in China was The Rev. Young John Allen, a Methodist missionary from the United States. Allen helped to spread knowledge of the West and for the need for Chinese reforms through his various Chinese-language newspapers. His publications, including 'The Church News', ran from 1868-1907. His most famous paper was the monthly 'Wan Guo Gong Bao', or 'A Review of the Times,' which discussed international politics, economic theory, the possibilities for reform in China and the repercussions of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. Contributors to the 'Review' included Western missionaries, Chinese converts and Allen himself. Although much of his papers' subject matter was secular, the writings had a decidedly Protestant Christian slant as it was his goal to convert China to Christianity.
One of the major points of contention about the Chinese missions, and about the missionary movement in general, regards the development of independent native churches. Since the beginning, Chinese and foreign critics have accused the 19th-century Christian missionaries of keeping the native churches dependent on the mission boards in Britain and the U.S. for financial support and clerical leadership alike. In some cases, the criticism is warranted, but much can be attributed to jingoism and xenophobia on the part of succeeding Chinese governments, and in the West to ideological rejection of perceived Victorian era priggishness and paternalism.
(Sites, Sarah Moore (1912). "Nathan Sites: An Epic of the East." New York: Revell.)
Popularity and Indigenous Growth (1900-1925)
The opening of the twentieth century ushered in what has been called Christianity’s Golden age in China. It was a period of transition for both the church and the nation. China moved from Qing dynastic rule to a warlord-dominated republic to a united front of the Guomindang and Chinese Communist party in league against warlords and imperialism. Christianity enjoyed unprecedented popularity for two decades. Variety within the Protestant community increased; conservative, evangelical societies strengthened their presence; the social gospel approach gained momentum, and Chinese formed their own faith sects and autonomous churches.
Reaction to the failures of nineteenth century reform movements and to international humiliation subsequent to the Boxer Uprising helped create a readiness for change in China. Many Chinese assumed that to modernize, China would have to import and adapt from the West. Since missionaries contended that Western progress derived from its Christian heritage, Christianity gained new favour. The missionaries, their writings and Christian schools were accessible sources of information; parochial schools filled to overflowing. Church membership expanded and Christian movements like the YMCA and YWCA became popular.
The number of Protestant missionaries had surpassed 8,000 by 1925 and in the process, the nature of the community had altered. Estimates for the Chinese Protestant community ranged around 500,000.
There were also growing numbers of conservative evangelicals. Some came from traditional denomination, but others worked independently with minimal support, and many were sponsored by fundamentalist and faith groups like the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Christian Missionary Alliance, and the Assemblies of God. Pentecostal, charismatic and Millenarian preachers brought a new zeal to the drive to evangelize the world.
Parochial schools also nurtured a corps of Christian leaders who acquired influential positions in education, diplomatic service and other government bureaus, medicine, business, the Christian church and Christian movements. In the Christian community, individuals like Yu Rizhang (David Yui 1882 - 1936), Zhao Zichen (趙紫宸, 1888-1989), Xu Baoqian (徐寶謙, 1892-1944), and Liu Tingfang (Timothy Liu/劉廷芳, 1890-1947) stand out. Most were characterized with liberal theology, commitment to social reform, deep Chinese patriotism, and acquaintance with Western learning. Many of these leaders held popular revival meetings in Christian schools throughout China and, along with conservative churchmen like Cheng Jingyi (1881-1939), sparked the drive for greater Chinese autonomy and leadership in the church.
They became Chinese spokesmen in the National Christian Council, a liaison committee for Protestant churches, and the Church of Christ in China (CCC), established in 1927 to work toward independence. Even so, progress toward autonomy proved to be slow, for Western mission boards were reluctant to relinquish the power of the pocket book, which gave them a decisive voice in most matters of importance.
Adding to the diversity and also to the conservative trend was the proliferation of completely autonomous Chinese Christian churches and communities, a new phenomenon in Chinese Protestantism. Noteworthy was the China Christian Independent Church (Zhōngguó Yēsūjiào Zìlìhuì), a federation which by 1920 had over 100 member churches, drawn mostly from the Chinese urban class. In contrast was the True Jesus Church (Zhēn Yēsū Jiàohuì), founded in 1917; Pentecostal, millenarian and exclusivist, it was concentrated in the central interior provinces.
Sometimes independence derived not so much from a desire to indigenize Christianity as from the nature of leadership. Wang Mingdao (1900-1991) and Song Shangjie (John Sung, 1900-1944) were zealous, confident of possessing the truth, and critical of what they peceived as lukewarm formalism in the Protestant establishments. They drew on the revivalism and mysticism of Western “faith sects” and the Pentecostalism of the True Jesus Church. During the 1920s and 1930s both Wang and Song worked as independent itinerant preachers, holding highly successful and emotional meetings in established churches and other venues. Their message was simple: “today’s evil world demands repentance; otherwise hell is our destiny”. To this doomsday prophecy, Song added faith healing. Their premillenial eschatology attracted tens of thousands of followers set adrift in an environment of political chaos, civil war, and personal hardship.
Early Chinese Christian Evangelists
Church education
Both Catholics and Protestants founded numerous educational institutions in China from the primary to the university level. Some of the most prominent Chinese universities began as religious-founded institutions.
Era of National and social change, the Japanese Occupation Period (1925-1949)
In the aftermath of World War I, many Westerners experienced a crisis of confidence. How could western nations, which had just emerged from one of the most destructive war of modern times, justify preaching morality to others? Volunteers, financial and intellectual support began a steady decline. The 1929 depression soon compounded the economic troubles. Yet the difficulties accelerated indigenization.
Since many Chinese Christian leaders were internationalists and pacifists, the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 presented a dilemma. Most abandoned their pacifism, and many joined the National Salvation Movement. After the December 1941 Pearl Harbour incident, Japan shortly invaded much of China and the Pacific region, with the evacuation or internment of most Westerners. As a result of being separated due to World War II, Christian churches and organizations had their first experience with autonomy from the Western-guided structures of the missionary church organizations. Once again Chinese were left to carry on and once again the Chinese Protestant church moved toward independence, union, or Chinese control. Some scholars suggest this helped lay the foundation for the independent denominations and churches of the post-war period and the eventual development of the Three-Self Church and the CCPA. After the end of the war, the Chinese Civil War began in earnest, which had an effect on the rebuilding and development of the churches after the close of Japanese occupation.
The chaos that was China during the 1930s and 1940s spawned religious movements that emphasized direct spiritual experience and an eschatology offering hope and comfort beyond this cruel world. In opposition to the "Y" and the Student Christian Movement, conservatives organized the Intervarsity Christian fellowship in 1945; for them, Social Gospel theology was not simply impotent; it had lost sight of the centrality of a personal relationship with the divine. The Jesus Family (Yēsū Jiātíng), founded about 1927, expanded in rural north and central China. Communitarian, pentecostal, and millenarian, its family communities lived, worked and held property jointly; worship often included speaking in tongues and revelations from the Holy Spirit.
The salvationist promise of Wang Mingdao, John Sung, and Ji Zhiwen (Andrew Gih/計志文, 1901-1985) continued to attract throngs of followers, many of them already Christians. Ni Tuosheng (Watchman Nee, 1903-1972), founder of the Church Assembly Hall (nicknamed as "Little Flock"), drew adherents with its assurances of a glorious New Jeruslaem in the next life for those who experienced rebirth and adhered to a strict morality. By 1945, Ni's hierarchically controlled and sectarian movement claimed a membership of over 70,000, organized into some 700 assemblies. The independent churches altogether accounted for well over 200,000 Protestants.
Communist rule
The People's Republic of China was established in October 1949 by the Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong. Under Communist ideology, religion was discouraged by the state and some have claimed that Christians endured widespread persecution by authorities over the next three decades. This claim has been popularized in the West by books such as The Heavenly Man, which documents the exploits of evangelist Brother Yun during that era. Another popular tale is the one of Father Thomas Phillips in the book I Met a Traveller by Kurt Becker.
Between 1949 and 1952, all foreign missionaries left the country in what was described by Phyllis Thompson of the China Inland Mission as a "reluctant exodus", leaving the indigenous churches to do their own administration, support, and propagation of the faith. The Chinese Protestant church entered the communist era having made significant progress toward self-support and self-government. Though Chinese rulers had traditionally sought to regulate organized religion and the CCP would continue the practice, Chinese Christians had gained experience in the art of accommodation in order to protect its members. Independent churches and a variety of evangelical sects broadened the appeal of Protestantism, especially in rural China. More than was realized at the time, Christianity in all its variety had taken root in China and possessed the strength and techniques to survive decades of hostility and persecution.
Christianity in the contemporary PRC
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Today, the Chinese language typically divides Christians into two groups, members of Jidu jiao, (literally, Christianity) Protestantism, and members of Tianzhu jiao (literally "Lord of Heaven" religion), Catholicism (see Protestantism in China and Catholicism in China.)
Some informal groups have emerged in the 1970s that seem to have been wholly new in origin, or perhaps to have sprouted from earlier seeds but grown into distinctly new movements. One of the best documented of these groups was founded by Peter Xu Zongze, an independent evangelist who began preaching in Henan in 1968. his organization, variously called the New Birth Sect (重生派), the Full Scope Church (全范围教会), or the Criers, is accused by some as being heretical. It is distinguished by a strong emphasis on a definitive experience of conversion, usually during an intensive three-day "life meeting", and by an emphasis (some say a requirement) on a confession of sins with tears. Xu has claimed that his organization consists of over 3500 congregations and has sent evangelists to more than twenty of China's provinces.[citation needed] These numbers cannot be independently verified, but it is evident that there are several other organized networks claiming a similarly large number of adherents, and many other groups of smaller scope. [citation needed]
Official Christian organizations
Since loosening of restrictions on religion after the 1970s, Christianity has grown significantly within the People's Republic. It is still, however, tightly controlled by government authorities. The Three-Self Patriotic Movement and China Christian Council (Protestant) and the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, which has disavowed the Pope and is considered schismatic by other Roman Catholics, have affiliations with government and must follow the regulations imposed upon them.
House churches
Many Christians choose however to meet independently of these organizations, typically in house churches. These fellowships are not officially registered and are seen as illegal entities and are often persecuted heavily. For this reason some meetings take place underground, coining the term "underground church". These Christians have been persecuted throughout the 20th century, especially during the Cultural Revolution, and there remains some official harassment in the form of arrests and interrogations of Chinese Christians. At the same time, there has been increasing tolerance of house churches since the late 1970s.
Orthodox Christianity in China
There are a small number of adherents of Russian Orthodoxy in northern China, predominantly in Harbin. The first mission was undertaken by Russians in the 17th century. Orthodox Christianity is also practiced by the small Russian ethnic minority in China.
Contemporary trends
Chinese Christian Brother Yun's book "The Heavenly Man" achieved the Christian Book of the Year award in the USA in 2003. The book describes Yun's life from his call to preach the gospel across China and the enlargement of the house church movement.
Estimates of Christians in China are difficult to obtain because of the numbers of Christians unwilling to reveal their beliefs, the hostility of the national government towards some Christian sects, and difficulties in obtaining accurate statistics on house churches.
Recent estimated figures of the number of Christians in China are varying. The official figure in 2002, which consists of members from Official Protestant churches, is about 15 million, while some estimates on members of Chinese house church vary from 50 million to 100 million. Kiven Choy stated, in a Chinese weekly newspaper in Hong Kong, that the correct number of Protestants in China should be at around 20 million, while Time Magazine recently reported 65 million. [1]
There are 4 million members of the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association and an estimated 12 million members of the underground Roman Catholic Church in China as of 2006. [2]
International visitors and Christianity
In large, international cities such as Beijing[3], foreign visitors have established Christian church communities which meet in public establishments such as hotels. These churches and fellowships, however, are typically restricted only to holders of non-Chinese passports.
American officials visiting China have on multiple occasions visited Chinese churches, including President George W. Bush, who attended one of Beijing's five officially-recognized Protestant churches during a November 2005 Asia tour. [4] [5]. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice attended Palm Sunday services in Beijing in 2005.
Demographics/Geography
It is not exactly known how many Chinese consider themselves Christian. The Chinese government states that only 1% (13 million) [26] of the population is Christian while the Chinese Embassy states that 10 Million (0.75%)[27] are Christian A recent Chinese poll revealed by the BBC showed that approximately 40 million Christians live in China [26]
A relatively large proportion of Christians are concentrated in Hebei province, in particular Catholics. Many internationally-reported arrests of Catholic leaders have occurred in that province. Hebei is also home to the town of Donglu, site of an alleged Marian apparition and pilgrimage center.
The magazine Christianity Today, brought out that demographers estimate that an average 200,000[citation needed] Chinese people convert to Christianity every year, meaning that it is the fastest growing religion in the nation, and has outpaced the Communist Party's population of 70 million people.
Christianity in Tibet
Recent historical research indicates the presence of Christianity in as early as the sixth and seventh centuries, a period when the White Huns had extensive links with the Tibetans.
Some Chinese terms in Christianity
There are various terms used for God in the Chinese language, the most prevalent being Shangdi (上帝, literally, "Sovereign King Above"), used commonly by Protestants and also by non-Christians, and Tianzhu (天主, literally, Lord of Heaven), which is most commonly favoured by Catholics.
While Christianity is referred to as 基督教 (Christ religion), the modern Chinese language typically divides Christians into three groups: believers of Protestantism Xin jiaotu (新教徒, literally "new religion followers"), believers of CatholicismTianzhu jiaotu (天主教徒, Lord of Heaven religion followers), and believers of Orthodox Dongzheng jiaotu (東正教徒, Eastern Orthodox religion followers, but more correctly "zhengjiaotu" 正教徒, because there is only one Chinese term for both Eastern and Oriental which is "dong" 東 and simply means the east. The latter term is more correct also because Eastern Orthodox churches are not in communion with and thus differ from the Oriental Orthodox churches.)
References
- Austin, Alvyn (2007). China’s Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-2975-7.
- Burgess, Alan (1957). The Small Woman. ISBN 1568491840.
- Gulick, Edward V. (1975). Peter Parker and the Opening of China. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 95, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1975).
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1929). A History of Christian Missions in China.
- Spence, Jonathan D. (1991). The Search for modern China. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393307808.
- Taylor, James Hudson (1868). China's Spiritual Need and Claims (Third Edition). London: James Nisbet.
- Soong, Irma Tam (1997). Sun Yat-sen's Christian Schooling in Hawai'i. Hawai'i: The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 13.
- ^ Christianity arrives in China 550 years earlier: new evidence
- ^ http://www.china.org.cn/e-china/religions/belief.htm
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm
- ^ http://www.cbn.com/spirituallife/BibleStudyAndTheology/Discipleship/persecution_112702.aspx
- ^ http://www.abc.net.au/rn/religionreport/stories/2007/1998728.htm
- ^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90133.htm
- ^ http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm
- ^ http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Nov07/Art_Nov07_17.html
- ^ http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm
- ^ http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Nov07/Art_Nov07_17.html
- ^ http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm
- ^ http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Nov07/Art_Nov07_17.html
- ^ Gulick, (1975) pp. 561-562
- ^ Burgess, (1957) pp. 47
- ^ Austin, (2007)
- ^ Soong, (1997) p. 151-178
- ^ [http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-977347/Counting-Christians-in-China-a.html
- ^ http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5717468/Church-growth-in-China-Century.html
- ^ Latourette, (1929)
- ^ "Christianity finds a fulcrum in Asia". Asia Times Online. August 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-25.
- ^ Spence (1991), p. 206
- ^ Taylor (1865),
- ^ Spence (1991), p. 206
- ^ Spence (1991), p. 206
- ^ Spence (1991), p. 208
- ^ a b http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm
- ^ http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/zjxy/t36493.htm
Bibliography
- Historical Bibliography of the China Inland Mission
- The Church of the Tang Dynasty, John Foster, SPCK, London, 1939
- The Lost Churches of China, Leonard M. Outerbridge, Westminster Press, Philadelphia, 1952
- The Story of Mary Liu, Edward Hunter, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1956
- Come Wind, Come Weather, Leslie Lyall, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1956
- Red Sky at Night, Leslie Lyall, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1961
- Christianity in China, George N. Patterson, World Books, London, 1969
- The Cross and the Lotus, Lee Shiu Keung, Christian Study Centre on Chinese Religion and Culture, Hong Kong, 1971
- Decision for China, Paul T. K. Shi, St John's University Press, N.Y., 1971
- The Jesus Family in China, D. Vaughan Rees, Paternoster Press, Exeter, 1973
- Christians and China, V. Hayward, Christian Journals Ltd, Belfast, 1974
- Nathan Sites: An Epic of the East, Sarah Moore Sites, Revell, New York, 1912
- The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci, Jonathan D. Spence, New York, 1984
- Jesus in Beijing, David Aikman, Regnery Publishing Inc., Washington D.C., 2003
See also
External links
- Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity
- Christianity Spreading in China
- Information on the Church in China
- Amity News Service, official website associated with the China Christian Council
- "Missionaries made in China" in MercatorNet, February 23, 2006
- http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03669a.htm
- Surveys/analyses of religious freedom in China by Forum 18 News Service
- Churches of the Wuyi Region
- TIME Magazine, "The War for China's Soul: As Christianity begins to reshape the nation, TIME learns new details about a crackdown on one church"
- International Christian Concern "Report on China"
- Methodist Missions in China
- Chinese Bible Resources
- Bible in Chinese, by Catholic Missionaries in Asia
- 'Jesus Christ's sister' is arrested in China by Venkatesan Vembu, Daily News & Analysis, November 24, 2007