Stereotype

For other uses, see Stereotype (disambiguation).

A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups based on some prior assumptions.

Etymology

The term stereotype (στερεότυπος) derives from the Greek words στερεός (stereos), "firm, solid" and τύπος (typos), "impression," hence "solid impression".

It was invented by Firmin Didot in the world of printing; it was originally a duplicate impression of an original typographical element, used for printing instead of the original. American journalist Walter Lippmann coined the metaphor, calling a stereotype a "picture in our heads" saying, "Whether right or wrong (...) imagination is shaped by the pictures seen (...) originally printers' words, and in their literal printers' meanings were synonymous. Specifically, cliché was a French word for the printing surface for a stereotype. The first reference to "stereotype," in its modern, English use was in 1850, in the noun, meaning "image perpetuated without change."

The term, in its modern psychology sense, was first used by Walter Lippmann in his 1922 work Public Opinion although in the printing sense it was first coined in 1798.

Dynamics

Social psychologists believe that mental categorizing (or labelling) is necessary and inescapable. In one perspective of the stereotyping process, there are the concepts of ingroups and outgroups. Ingroups are viewed as normal and superior, and are generally the group that one associates with or aspires to join. An outgroup is simply all the other groups. They are seen as lesser than or inferior to the in-groups.

A second perspective is that of automatic and explicit or subconscious and conscious. Automatic or subconscious stereotyping is that which everyone does without noticing. Automatic stereotyping is quickly preceded by an explicit or conscious check which permits time for any needed corrections. Automatic stereotyping is affected by explicit stereotyping because frequent conscious thoughts will quickly develop into subconscious stereotypes.

A third method to categorizing stereotypes is general types and sub-types. Stereotypes consist of hierarchical systems consisting of broad and specific groups being the general types and sub-types respectively. A general type could be defined as a broad stereotype typically known among many people and usually widely accepted, whereas the sub-group would be one of the several groups making up the general group. These would be more specific, and opinions of these groups would vary according to differing perspectives.

Certain circumstances can affect the way an individual stereotypes. For instance: Studies have shown that women stereotype more negatively than men, and that women read into appearance more than men. Some theorists argue in favor of the conceptual connection and that one's own subjective thought about someone is sufficient information to make assumptions about that individual. Other theorists argue that at minimum there must be a casual connection between mental states and behavior to make assumptions or stereotypes. Thus results and opinions may vary according to circumstance and theory. An example of a common, incorrect assumption is that of assuming certain internal characteristics based on external appearance. The explanation for one's actions is his or her internal state (goals, feeling, personality, traits, motives, values, and impulses), not his or her appearance.

Sociologist Charles E. Hurst, "One reason for stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals."

Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences. This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among African Americans, identity as an American citizen is more salient than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African.

Theories on stereotypes

Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists may focus on an individual's experience with groups, patterns of communication about those groups, and intergroup conflict. Pioneering psychologist William James cautioned psychologists themselves to be wary of their own stereotyping, in what he called the psychologist's fallacy. Sociologists focus on the relations among groups and the of different groups in a social structure. Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists have argued (e.g., Sander Gilman) that stereotypes, by definition, are representations that are not accurate, but a projection of one to another.

A number of theories have been derived from sociological studies of stereotyping and prejudicial thinking. In early studies it was believed that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. Sociologists concluded that this was a result of conflict, poor parenting, and inadequate mental and emotional development. This idea has been overturned; more recent studies have concluded that stereotypes are commonplace.

One theory as to why people stereotype is that it is too difficult to take in all of the complexities of other people as individuals. Even though stereotyping is inexact, it is an efficient way to mentally organize large blocks of information. Categorization is an essential human capability because it enables us to simplify, predict, and organize our world. Once one has sorted and organized everyone into tidy categories, there is a human tendency to avoid processing new or unexpected information about each individual. Assigning general group characteristics to members of that group saves time and satisfies the need to predict the social world in a general sense.

Another theory is that people stereotype because of the need to feel good about oneself. Stereotypes protect one from anxiety and enhance self-esteem. By designating one's own group as the standard or normal group and assigning others to groups considered inferior or abnormal, it provides one with a sense of worth.

Some believe that childhood influences are some of the most complex and influential factors in developing stereotypes. Though they can be absorbed at any age, stereotypes are usually acquired in early childhood under the influence of parents, teachers, peers, and the media. Once a stereotype is learned, it often becomes self-perpetuating.

Other theories propose that the praising of intelligence and ability rather than effort and hard work inevitably changes the prospective from a malleable sense of self-worth to a definite concept of self-worth as seen from the individual and others around them.

Effects, accuracy, terminology

Main article: Stereotype threat

Stereotypes can have a negative and positive impact on individuals. Joshua Aronson and Claude M. Steele have done research on the psychological effects of stereotyping, particularly its effect on African Americans and women. They argue that psychological research has shown that competence is highly responsive to situation and interactions with others. They cite, for example, a study which found that bogus feedback to college students dramatically affected their IQ test performance, and another in which students were either praised as very smart, congratulated on their hard work, or told that they scored high. The group praised as smart performed significantly worse than the others. They believe that there is an 'innate ability bias'. These effects are not just limited to minority groups. Mathematically competent white males, mostly math and engineering students, were asked to take a difficult math test. One group was told that this was being done to determine why Asians were scoring better. This group performed significantly worse than the control group.

Possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes are:

• Justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance
• Unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and behavior towards stereotyped group
• Preventing some people of stereotyped groups from entering or succeeding in activities or fields

The effects of stereotyping can fluctuate, but for the most part they are negative, and not always apparent until long periods of time have passed. Stereotypes allow individuals to make better informed evaluations of individuals about whom they possess little or no individuating information, and in many, but not all circumstances stereotyping helps individuals arrive at more accurate conclusions. Over time, some victims of negative stereotypes display self-fulfilling prophecy behavior, in which they assume that the stereotype represents norms to emulate. Negative effects may include forming inaccurate opinions of people, scapegoating, erroneously judgmentalism, preventing emotional identification, distress, and impaired performance.

Yet, the stereotype that stereotypes are inaccurate, resistant to change, overgeneralized, exaggerated, and destructive is not founded on empirical social science research, which instead shows that stereotypes are often accurate and that people do not rely on stereotypes when relevant personal information is available. Indeed, Jussim et al. comment that ethnic and gender stereotypes are surprisingly accurate, while stereotypes concerning political affiliation and nationality are much less accurate; the stereotypes assessed for accuracy concerned intelligence, behavior, personality, and economic status. Stereotype accuracy is a growing area of study and for Yueh-Ting Lee and his colleagues they have created an EPA Model (Evaluation, Potency, Accuracy) to describe the continuously changing variables of stereotypes.

Role in art and culture

Stereotypes are common in various cultural media, where they take the form of dramatic stock characters. These characters are found in the works of playwright Bertolt Brecht, Dario Fo, and Jacques Lecoq, who characterize their actors as stereotypes for theatrical effect. In commedia dell'arte this is similarly common. The instantly recognizable nature of stereotypes mean that they are effective in advertising and situation comedy. These stereotypes change, and in modern times only a few of the stereotyped characters shown in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress would be recognizable.

In literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable characters or situations. Throughout history, storytellers have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations, in order to connect the audience with new tales immediately. Sometimes such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such as Shakespeare's Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. Arguably a stereotype that becomes complex and sophisticated ceases to be a stereotype per se by its unique characterization. Thus while Shylock remains politically unstable in being a stereotypical Jew, the subject of prejudicial derision in Shakespeare's era, his many other detailed features raise him above a simple stereotype and into a unique character, worthy of modern performance. Simply because one feature of a character can be categorized as being typical does not make the entire character a stereotype.

Despite their proximity in etymological roots, cliché and stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres. For example a cliché is a high criticism in narratology where genre and categorization automatically associates a story within its recognizable group. Labeling a situation or character in a story as typical suggests it is fitting for its genre or category. Whereas declaring that a storyteller has relied on cliché is to pejoratively observe a simplicity and lack of originality in the tale. To criticize Ian Fleming for a stereotypically unlikely escape for James Bond would be understood by the reader or listener, but it would be more appropriately criticized as a cliché in that it is overused and reproduced. Narrative genre relies heavily on typical features to remain recognizable and generate meaning in the reader/viewer.

In movies and TV the halo effect is often used. This is when, for example, attractive men and women are assumed to be happier, stronger, nicer people .

Racial and ethnic stereotyping

African stereotypes

Further information: Anti-Igbo sentiment

Africans are typically presented as living in tiny huts in rural villages.

In the Americas

Main articles: Stereotypes of Hispanics, Stereotypes of Native Americans, and Stereotypes of groups within the United States

Further information: Hispanophobia, Anti-Mexican sentiment, Anti-Chilean sentiment, Antihaitianismo, Anti-Canadianism, Anti-Americanism, Anti-Quebec sentiment, and Stereotypes of African Americans

Latino people are stereotyped as needing handouts through welfare and private charity, being Roman Catholic, having many children, and being present in the US illegally. The stereotypes say that they rarely complete high school and cannot speak English well.

Native Americans may be presented positively, as acutely environmentally conscious, spiritual, wise, loyal, or with extraordinary skill in hunting or tracking. They may also be portrayed negatively, as indigent, drunk, violent, or implacable enemies.

Black Americans were stereotyped in the early 20th century as joyous, naive, superstitious, and ignorant. Many portrayals showed them with thick lips, and in cartoons they were often portrayed as crows. By the end of the 20th century, the stereotypes said that they were poor, lazy, ignorant, criminals, and violent, and occasionally ardent adherents of Christianity.

White Americans are also subject to being stereotyped by others, e.g., the ugly American stereotype of American visitors.

East Asian and South Asian stereotypes

Main articles: Stereotypes of East Asians in the Western world and Stereotypes of South Asians

Further information: Anti-Brahminism, Sinophobia, Indophobia, Anti-Japanese sentiment, Anti-Korean sentiment, Anti-Malay racism, and Anti-Manchuism

European stereotypes

Main article: Anti-Europeanism

Further information: Albanophobia, Anglophobia, Anti-British sentiment, Anti-Catalanism, Anti-Estonian sentiment, Francophobia, Anti-German sentiment, Anti-Italianism, Anti-Polish sentiment, Lusophobia, Antiziganism, Anti-Romanian discrimination, Russophobia, Anti-Scottish sentiment, Serbophobia, Anti-Slavism, Anti-Sovietism, and Anti-Ukrainian sentiment

See also: List of terms for white people in non-Western cultures

Irish stereotypes

File:Irish-stereotypes.jpg

The cartoon above (New Physiognomy, New York, 1866), contrasts Florence Nightingale, the Crimean War nurse, with "Bridget McBruiser," the stereotypical Irish woman.

Scientific racism from an American magazine, Harper's Weekly, says that the Irish are similar to 'Negroes.'

Main article: Anti-Irish racism

An analysis of nineteenth-century British attitudes by Mary J. Hickman and Bronwen Walter wrote that the 'Irish Catholic' was one viewed as an "other," or a different race in the construction of the English nationalist myth. Likewise, the Irish considered the English "other" and fought hard to break away.

Some of the more vulgar generalizations against Irish people are characterizations of them as quick-tempered brawlers and alcoholics. One 19th century British cartoonist even depicted Irish immigrants as simian and racially different from Anglo-Saxons. One American doctor in the 1850s, James Redfield, argued that "facial angle" was a sign of intelligence and character; likening the physiognomies of human ethnic groups to animals. Thus Irishmen resembled dogs, Yankees were like bears, Germans like lions, blacks like elephants and Englishmen like bulls. In the 20th century physical stereotypes survived in the comic books until the 1950s, with Irish characters like Mutt and Jeff, and Jiggs and Maggie appearing daily in hundreds of newspapers.

Middle Eastern, West and Central Asian stereotypes

Main articles: Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims and Western stereotypes of West and Central Asians

Further information: Anti-Arabism, Anti-Iranian sentiment, and Anti-Turkism

Jewish stereotypes

Antisemitic caricature based on racial stereotypes, 1873

Main article: Stereotypes of Jews

Further information: Antisemitism, Racial antisemitism, Anti-Zionism, and Anti-goyism

Jewish people have been stereotyped throughout the centuries and made scapegoats for a multitude of societal problems. Jews are still stereotyped as greedy, nit-picky, misers. They have often been shown counting money or collecting diamonds. Antisemitism prevailed for centuries and reached a climax in Nazi Germany during World War II with the Holocaust.

Early films such as Cohen's Advertising Scheme (1904, silent) stereotyped Jews as "scheming merchants."

Australian stereotypes

In Australia, Miss Natalie is considered to be a 'stereotyper' a rare breed who's job it is to stereotype others on windows live messenger conversations.

Sexual stereotypes

The British biologist, Angus John Bateman was the one who first talked about sexual stereotypes in the late 1940s. His theory would say that males are promiscuous and females tend to be more selective when choosing their sexual partners. Although Bateman's principle was based on experiments made of fruitflies, later on he concluded that the theory applies also in the case of humans. His ideas also were based on the fact that males presented an "undiscriminating eagerness" to mate while females displayed "discriminated passivity."

Impact of sexual stereotypes

Living up to stereotypes can have damaging effects. Intending to live up to sexual stereotypes may lead to frustration. Stereotypes have the ability to create an idea that some are better than others based on their sexual abilities and sexual organs.

Sexual orientation stereotypes

Main article: LGBT stereotypes

Lesbianism

People stereotype lesbians as identifying with a “butch” or “dyke” image. They are commonly perceived to have short haircuts, be overweight and unattractive. People often correlate feminism and misandry with female homosexuality. Some people think women become gay because of their bad experiences with men. While this is true in very few cases, it is definitely not seen as universal.

Male homosexuality

Commonly held beliefs about gay males include identifying with a stereotypical effeminate or twink image. Some people often correlate male homosexuality with issues such as substance abuse and promiscuity.

Bisexuality

Bisexuals are stereotyped in many ways. Male bisexuals are stereotyped as living on the down-low, while female bisexuals are stereotyped as attention-seeking and nymphomaniacs.

Pedophilia stereotypes

Pedophiles and pedophilia, although not under the category of Sexual Orientation such as homosexuality or bisexuality are also victims of stereotypes. In mass media a pedophile is usually depicted a serial child molester or a person with several mental problems, while many organizations remark that most pedophiles, although attracted to young or teenage children, do not molest them and that many of the stereotypes against pedophiles are false or are unacceptable as a generalization .

Gender stereotypes

See also: Gender role, Masculinity, Femininity, and Gender differences

Masculine gender

Further information: Testosterone poisoning

Feminine gender

Further information: Dumb blonde and Portrayal of women in video games

See also

• Archetype
• Assumption
• Attribute substitution
• Attributional bias
• Cognitive bias
• Communication noise
• Counterstereotype (antonym)
• Face-ism
• Idée fixe (psychology)
• Labeling theory
• Milieu control
• Scapegoating
• Self-Stereotyping
• Social control theory
• Stigmatization
• Stereotype threat
• Negativity effect
• Outgroup homogeneity bias
• Trait ascription bias

Other stereotypes

• Nurse stereotypes
• Animal stereotypes
• Ethnic stereotype
• Physical attractiveness stereotype

Bibliography

• Stuart Ewen, Elizabeth Ewen, Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York (Seven Stories Press) 2006
• Stereotype & Society A Major Resource: Constantly updated and archived
• Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
• Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype? Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links
• Regenberg, Nina (2007). "Are Blonds Really Dumb?". In mind (magazine) (3).
• Are Stereotypes True?
• Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance, Margaret Shih, Todd L. Pittinsky, Nalini Ambady Research about the effects of 'positive' and negative stereotypes on encouraging/discouraging performance.
• Turner, Chris (2004). Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation. Toronto: Random House Canada.
• Crawford, M. & Unger, R. (2004). Women and Gender: A Feminist Psychology. McGraw Hill New York. New York. 45-49.*
• Spitzer, B.L., Henderson, K, A., & Zavian, M. T. (1999). Gender differences in population versus media body sizes: A comparison over four decades. Sex Roles, 40, 545-565.*
• Terracciano A, Abdel-Khalek AM, Adám N; et al. (2005). "National character does not reflect mean personality trait levels in 49 cultures". Science. 310 (5745): 96–100. doi:10.1126/science.1117199. PMC 2775052. PMID 16210536. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links

• Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
• Understanding Stereotypes - Educational information about stereotypes.
• SEPARATING the GOLD from the DROSS: a guide to multicultural literature
• Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype? Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links