Coral snake: Difference between revisions
No edit summary |
|||
Line 14: | Line 14: | ||
| subdivision = See text.}} |
| subdivision = See text.}} |
||
The '''coral snakes''' are a large group of [[elapid]] [[snakes]] that can be subdivided into two distinct groups, [[Old World]] coral snakes and [[New World]] coral snakes. There are 11 [[species]] of Old World coral snake in one [[genus]] (''[[Calliophis]]''), and over 65 recognized species of New World coral snakes in |
The '''coral snakes''' are a large group of [[elapid]] [[snakes]] that can be subdivided into two distinct groups, [[Old World]] coral snakes and [[New World]] coral snakes. There are 11 [[species]] of Old World coral snake in one [[genus]] (''[[Calliophis]]''), and over 65 recognized species of New World coral snakes in several genera including (''Leptomicrurus'', ''Micruroides'', Adelynhoserserpenae and ''Micrurus''). |
||
==North American coloration patterns== |
==North American coloration patterns== |
Revision as of 07:09, 17 December 2012
Template:Globalize/North America
Coral snake | |
---|---|
Coral snake (Micrurus sp.) | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | |
Phylum: | |
Class: | |
Order: | |
Suborder: | |
Family: | |
Species | |
See text. |
The coral snakes are a large group of elapid snakes that can be subdivided into two distinct groups, Old World coral snakes and New World coral snakes. There are 11 species of Old World coral snake in one genus (Calliophis), and over 65 recognized species of New World coral snakes in several genera including (Leptomicrurus, Micruroides, Adelynhoserserpenae and Micrurus).
North American coloration patterns
Coral snakes are most notable for their red, yellow/white, and black colored banding. (However, several nonvenomous species have similar coloration, including the scarlet snake, genus Cemophora, some of the kingsnakes and milk snakes, genus Lampropeltis, and the shovelnose snakes, genus Chionactis.) In some regions, the order of the bands distinguishes between the non-venomous mimics and the venomous coral snakes, inspiring some folk rhymes — “Red on yellow, poison fellow; red on black, safe from attack.” "Red on yellow, kill a fellow; "Red on black, friend of Jack"; and "Red into black, venom lack; red into yellow, kill a fellow." However, this reliably applies only to coral snakes native to North America: Micrurus fulvius (Eastern or common coral snake), Micrurus tener (Texas coral snake), and Micruroides euryxanthus (Arizona coral snake), found in the southern and western United States. Coral snakes found in other parts of the world can have distinctly different patterns, have red bands touching black bands, have only pink and blue banding, or have no banding at all.
Most species of coral snake are small in size. North American species average around 3 feet (91 cm) in length, but specimens of up to 5 feet (150 cm) or slightly larger have been reported. Aquatic species have flattened tails acting as a fin, aiding in swimming.
Behavior
Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most are very elusive, fossorial snakes which spend the vast majority of their time buried beneath the ground or in the leaf litter of a rainforest floor, coming to the surface only when it rains or during breeding season. Some species, like Micrurus surinamensis, are almost entirely aquatic and spend most of their lives in slow-moving bodies of water that have dense vegetation.
Like all elapid snakes, coral snakes possess a pair of small fangs to deliver their venom (some coral snakes are rear fanged). These fangs, which are enlarged and hollow, in order to deliver their venom to their prey species feeding mostly on smaller snakes, lizards, frogs, and nestling birds and rodents, etc.. The venom takes time to take full effect.[1]
Coral snakes have a tendency to hold on to a victim when biting, unlike vipers which have retractable fangs and tend to prefer to strike and let go immediately. Coral snakes are not aggressive or prone to biting and account for less than one percent of the number of snake bites each year in the United States.
Distribution
New World coral snakes exist in the southern range of many temperate U.S. states. Coral snakes are found in scattered localities in the southern coastal plain from North Carolina to Louisiana, including all of Florida. They can be found in pine and scrub oak sandhill habitats in parts of this range but sometimes inhabit hardwood areas and pine flatwoods that undergo seasonal flooding.[2] Seen even as far north as southern parts of Michigan.
There is controversy about the classification of the very similar Texas coral snake as a separate species. Its habitat, in Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas, is separated from the eastern habitat by the Mississippi River. The coral snake population is most dense in the southeast United States, but coral snakes have been spotted as far north as Kentucky.[3]
The Arizona coral snake, clearly a separate species and genus, is found in central and southern Arizona, extreme southwestern New Mexico and southward to Sinaloa in western Mexico. It occupies arid and semiarid regions in many different habitat types including thornscrub, desert-scrub, woodland, grassland and farmland. It is found in the plains and lower mountain slopes from sea level to 5800 feet (1768 m); often found in rocky areas. [4]
Danger to humans
New World coral snakes possess one of the most potent venoms of any North American snake. Most venomous snakes must inject between 75–100 mg of venom to be fatal.[5] However, relatively few bites are recorded due to their reclusive nature and the fact they generally inhabit sparsely populated areas. According to the American National Institutes of Health, there are an average of 15–25 coral snake bites in the United States each year.[6]
When confronted by humans, coral snakes will almost always attempt to flee, and bite only as a last resort. In addition, coral snakes have short fangs (proteroglyph dentition) that cannot penetrate thick leather clothing. Any skin penetration however, is a medical emergency that requires immediate attention. Coral snakes have a powerful neurotoxin that paralyzes the breathing muscles; mechanical or artificial respiration, along with large doses of antivenom, are often required to save a victim's life. There is usually only mild pain associated with a bite, but respiratory failure can occur within hours.
The bite of a coral snake may soon be more dangerous, in part because bites are so uncommon. Production of coral snake antivenom in the United States has ceased because it is not profitable. According to Pfizer, the owner of the company that used to make Coralmyn, it would take over $5–$10 million to put toward researching a new synthetic antivenom.[citation needed][clarification needed] The cost was too large for the small number of cases presented each year. The current antivenom stock expired in 2010, after two consecutive expiration date extensions approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Foreign pharmaceutical manufacturers have produced other coral snake antivenoms, but the costs associated with licensing them in the United States have stalled availability (see above).[7] Instituto Bioclon is developing a coral snake antivenom.[8]
Old World
Genus Calliophis
Species in this genus are:
- Calliophis beddomei M.A. Smith, 1943– Beddome's coral snake
- Calliophis bibroni (Jan, 1858) – Bibron's coral snake
- Calliophis bivirgatus (F. Boie, 1827)– blue Malaysian coral snake
- Calliophis gracilis Gray, 1835 – spotted coral snake (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore)
- Calliophis haematoetron E.N. Smith, Manamendra-Arachchi & Somweera, 2008 – blood-bellied coral snake (Sri Lanka)
- Calliophis intestinalis (Laurenti, 1768) – banded Malaysian coral snake (Indonesia and Malaysia)
- Calliophis maculiceps (Günther, 1858) – speckled coral snake (Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos)
- Calliophis melanurus (Shaw, 1802)– Indian coral snake
- Calliophis nigrescens (Günther, 1862)– black coral snake
New World
Genus Leptomicrurus
- Guyana blackback coral snake, Leptomicrurus collaris – northern South America.
- Andean blackback coral snake, Leptomicrurus narduccii
Genus Micruroides
- Arizona coral snake, Micruroides euryxanthus – lowland regions from Arizona to Sinaloa.
Genus Micrurus
- Allen's coral snake, Micrurus alleni – eastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama.
- Micrurus altirostris (Cope, 1860) – Brazil, Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina.
- Regal coral snake, Micrurus ancoralis – southeastern Panama, western Colombia, and western Ecuador
- Annellated coral snake, Micrurus annellatus – southeastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil.
- Black-headed coral snake, Micrurus averyi (Schmidt, 1939)
- Micrurus bernadi (Cope, 1887) – Mexico.
- Ecuadorian coral snake, Micrurus bocourti Jan, 1872 – western Ecuador to northern Colombia,
- Bogert's coral snake, Micrurus bogerti (Roze, 1967) – Oaxaca.
- Brown's coral snake, Micrurus browni – Quintana Roo to Honduras.
- Micrurus browni browni Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
- Micrurus browni importunus Roze, 1967
- Micrurus browni taylori Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
- Micrurus camilae (Renjifo & Lundberg, 2003) – Colombia.
- Catamayo coral snake, Micrurus catamayensis (Roze, 1989) – Catamayo Valley of Ecuador.
- Clark's coral snake, Micrurus clarki (Schmidt, 1936) – southeastern Costa Rica to western Colombia.
- Painted coral snake, Micrurus corallinus (Merrem, 1820)
- Brazilian coral snake, Micrurus decoratus (Jan, 1858)
- Micrurus diana (Roze, 1983)
- Variable coral snake, Micrurus diastema
- Micrurus diastema diastema (Duméril, Bibron, & Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus diastema aglaeope (Cope, 1859)
- Micrurus diastema alienus (Werner, 1903)
- Micrurus diastema affinis (Jan, 1858)
- Micrurus diastema apiatus (Jan, 1858)
- Micrurus diastema macdougalli (Roze, 1967)
- Micrurus diastema sapperi (Werner, 1903)
- Micrurus dissoleucus dissoleucus (Cope, 1860)
- Micrurus dissoleucus dunni (Barbour, 1923)
- Micrurus dissoleucus melanogenys (Cope, 1860)
- Micrurus dissoleucus meridensis (Roze, 1989)
- Micrurus dissoleucus nigrirostris (Schmidt, 1955)
- Micrurus distans distans (Kennicott, 1860)
- Micrurus distans michoacanensis (Dugės, 1891)
- Micrurus distans oliveri (Roze, 1967)
- Micrurus distans zweifeli (Roze, 1967)
- Micrurus dumerilii dumerilii Jan, 1858
- Micrurus dumerilii antioquiensis (Schmidt, 1936)
- Micrurus dumerilii carinicaudus (Schmidt, 1936)
- Micrurus dumerilii colombianus (Griffin, 1916)
- Micrurus dumerilii transandinus (Schmidt, 1936)
- Micrurus dumerilii venezuelensis (Roze, 1989)
- Micrurus elegans elegans (Jan, 1858)
- Micrurus elegans veraepacis (Schmidt, 1933)
- Micrurus ephippifer zapotecus (Roze, 1989)
- Micrurus ephippifer ephippifer (Cope, 1886)
- Micrurus filiformis filiformis (Günther, 1859)
- Micrurus filiformis subtilis (Roze, 1967)
- Southern coral snake, Micrurus frontalis – Brazil to northeastern Argentina.
- Micrurus frontalis frontalis (Duméril, Bibron, & Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus frontalis brasiliensis (Roze, 1967)
- Micrurus frontalis mesopotamicus (Barrio & Miranda 1967)
- Bolivian coral snake, Micrurus frontifasciatus (Werner, 1927)
- Eastern coral snake, Micrurus fulvius (Linnaeus, 1766) – coastal plains of North Carolina to Louisiana
- Hemprich's coral snake, Micrurus hemprichii
- Micrurus hemprichii hemprichii (Jan, 1858)
- Micrurus hemprichii ortoni (Schmidt, 1953)
- Micrurus hemprichii rondonianus (Roze & Da Silva, 1990)
- Mayan coral snake, Micrurus hippocrepis (Peters, 1862)
- Caatinga coral snake, Micrurus ibiboboca (Merrem, 1820)
- Venezuela coral snake, Micrurus isozonus (Cope, 1860)
- Langsdorff's coral snake, Micrurus langsdorffi
- Micrurus langsdorffi langsdorffi (Wagler, 1824)
- Micrurus langsdorffi ornatissimus (Jan, 1858)
- Broad-ringed coral snake, Micrurus latifasciatus (Schmidt, 1933)
- South American coral snake, kayla lemniscatus – most of low lying areas of South America.
- Micrurus lemniscatus lemniscatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
- Micrurus lemniscatus carvalhoi (Roze, 1967)
- Micrurus lemniscatus diutius (Burger, 1955)
- Micrurus lemniscatus frontifasciatus (Werner, 1927)
- Micrurus lemniscatus helleri (Schmidt & Schmidt, 1925)
- Micrurus limbatus limbatus (Fraser, 1964)
- Micrurus limbatus spilosomus (Perez-Higaredo & H.M. Smith, 1990)
- Speckled coral snake, Micrurus margaritiferus (Roze, 1967)
- Micrurus medemi (Roze, 1967)
- Mertens' coral snake, Micrurus mertensi (Schmidt, 1936)
- Redtail coral snake, Micrurus mipartitus
- Micrurus mipartitus mipartitus (Duméril, Bibron, & Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus mipartitus anomalus (Boulenger, 1896)
- Micrurus mipartitus decussatus (Duméril, Bibron, & Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus mipartitus semipartitus (Jan, 1858)
- Cauca coral snake, Micrurus multiscutatus (Rendahl & Vestergren, 1940)
- Cloud forest coral snake, Micrurus nebularis (Roze, 1989)
- Central American coral snake, Micrurus nigrocinctus – Yucatan and Chiapas to Colombia as well as western Caribbean islands
- Micrurus nigrocinctus babaspul Roze, 1967
- Micrurus nigrocinctus coibensis Schmidt, 1936
- Micrurus nigrocinctus divaricatus (Hallowell, 1855)
- Micrurus nigrocinctus mosquitensis Schmidt, 1933
- Micrurus nigrocinctus nigrocinctus (Girard, 1854)
- Micrurus nigrocinctus ovandoensis Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
- Micrurus nigrocinctus wagneri Mertens, 1941
- Micrurus nigrocinctus yatesi Dunn, 1942
- Micrurus nigrocinctus zunilensis Schmidt, 1932
- Micrurus pacaraimae (Morata de Carvalho, 2002)
- Micrurus pachecogili (Campbell, 2000)
- Micrurus paraensis (Da Cunha & Nascimento, 1973)
- Peruvian coral snake, Micrurus peruvianus (Schmidt, 1936)
- Peters' coral snake, Micrurus petersi (Roze, 1967)
- Nayarit coral snake, Micrurus proximans (H.M. Smith & Chrapliwy, 1958)
- Carib coral snake, Micrurus psyches
- Micrurus psyches circinalis (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus psyches donosoi (Hoge, Cordeiro, & Romano, 1976)
- Micrurus psyches psyches (Daudin, 1803)
- Putumayo coral snake, Micrurus putumayensis (Lancini, 1962)
- Micrurus pyrrhocryptus (Cope, 1862)
- Micrurus remotus (Roze, 1987)
- Micrurus renjifoi (Lamar, 2003)
- Roatan coral snake, Micrurus ruatanus (Günther, 1895)
- Santander coral snake, Micrurus sangilensis (Nicéforo-Maria, 1942)
- Micrurus scutiventris (Hoge, & Romano-Hoge, 1966)
- Micrurus silviae Di-Bernardo et al., 2007
- Amazon coral snake, Micrurus spixii
- Micrurus spixii spixii (Wagler, 1824)
- Micrurus spixiii martiusi (Schmidt, 1953)
- Micrurus spixii obscurus (Jan, 1872)
- Micrurus spixii princeps (Boulenger, 1905)
- Micrurus steindachneri steindachneri (Werner, 1901)
- Micrurus steindachneri orcesi (Roze, 1967)
- Panamanian coral snake, Micrurus stewarti (Barbour & Amaral, 1928)
- Stuart's coral snake, Micrurus stuarti Roze, 1967
- Aquatic coral snake, Micrurus surinamensis
- Micrurus tamaulipensis (Lavin-Murcio & Dixon, 2004) – Sierra Madre Oriental in Tamaulipas.
- Texas coral snake, Micrurus tener – Texas and Louisiana south to Morelos and Guanajuato.
- Micrurus tener fitzingeri (Jan, 1858)
- Micrurus tener maculatus Roze, 1967
- Micrurus tener microgalbineus Brown, & H.M. Smith, 1942
- Micrurus tener tener (Baird, & Girard, 1853)
- Micrurus tricolor (Hoge, 1956)
- Desert coral snake, Micrurus tschudii (Jan, 1858)
- Micrurus tschudii olssoni (Schmidt & Schmidt, 1925)
- Micrurus tschudii tschudii Jan, 1858
Mimicry
New World coral snakes serve as models for their Batesian mimics, False coral snakes, snake species whose venom is less toxic, as well as for many nonvenomous snake species that bear superficial resemblances to them. The role of coral snakes as models for Batesian mimics is supported by research showing that coral snake color patterns deter predators from attacking snake-shaped prey,[9][10] and that in the absence of coral snakes, species hypothesized to mimic them are indeed attacked more frequently.[11] Species that appear similar to coral snakes include:
- Cemophora coccinea
- Chionactis palarostris
- Erythrolamprus aesculapii
- Erythrolamprus bizona
- Erythrolamprus ocellatus, Tobago false coral
- Lampropeltis pyromelana
- Lampropeltis triangulum, milk snake, subspecies:
- Lampropeltis zonata
- Oxyrhopus petola
- Rhinocheilus lecontei tessellatus
References
- ^ "Coral Snakes, coral snake, pictures". Retrieved 24 November 2009.
- ^ University of Georgia, Savannah River Ecology, Snakes of Georgia and South Carolina
- ^ Western Connecticut State University
- ^ Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum
- ^ "The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere". Venomousreptiles.org. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ "Snake bites: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". Nlm.nih.gov. 13 January 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ "Antivenom Shortages – Cost of Antivenom Production Creates Shortages". Popular Mechanics. 10 May 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ "Our Products – Coralmyn". Bioclon.com.mx. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ Brodie III, Edmund D. (1993). "Differential avoidance of coral snake banded patterns by free-ranging avian predators in Costa Rica". Evolution. 47 (1): 227–235. doi:10.2307/2410131.
- ^ Brodie III, Edmund D., Moore, Allen J. (1995). "Experimental studies of coral snake mimicry: do snakes mimic millipedes?". Animal Behavior. 49 (2): 534–6. doi:10.1006/anbe.1995.0072.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Pfennig, David W., Harcombe, William R., Pfennig, Karin S. (2001). "Frequncy-dependent Batesian mimicry". Nature. 410 (6826): 323. doi:10.1038/35066628. PMID 11268195.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Further reading
- Tanaka G. D., Furtado Md. F. D., Portaro F. C. V., Sant'Anna O. A. & Tambourgi D. V. (2010). "Diversity of Micrurus Snake Species Related to Their Venom Toxic Effects and the Prospective of Antivenom Neutralization". PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4(3): e622. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000622