Opossum: Difference between revisions

Didelphimorphia; Temporal range: Late Cretaceous–Recent PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N
	Virginia Opossum Didelphis virginiana
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Infraclass:	Marsupialia
Superorder:	Ameridelphia
Order:	Didelphimorphia; Gill, 1872
Family:	Didelphidae; Gray, 1821
Genera
	Several; see text

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Opossums (colloquially possums) (Didelphimorphia, /daɪˌdɛlf[invalid input: 'ɨ']ˈmɔːrfiə/) make up the largest order of marsupials in the Western Hemisphere, including 103 or more species in 19 genera. They are also commonly called possums, though that term technically refers to Australian fauna of the suborder Phalangeriformes. The Virginia opossum was the first animal to be named an opossum; usage of the name was published in 1610.^[2] The word opossum was borrowed from the Virginia Algonquian (Powhatan) language in the form aposoum and ultimately derives from the Proto-Algonquian word *wa˙p- aʔθemw, meaning "white dog" or "white beast/animal".^[3] Opossums probably diverged from the basic South American marsupials in the late Cretaceous or early Paleocene.

Their unspecialized biology, flexible diet and reproductive strategy make them successful colonizers and survivors in diverse locations and conditions.^{[citation needed]}

Characteristics

Didelphimorphs are small to medium-sized marsupials, with the largest just exceeding the size of a large house cat, and the smallest the size of a small mouse. They tend to be semi-arboreal omnivores, although there are many exceptions. Most members of this taxon have long snouts, a narrow braincase, and a prominent sagittal crest. The dental formula is: 5.1.3.44.1.3.4. By mammalian standards, this is a very full jaw. The incisors are very small, the canines large, and the molars are tricuspid.

Didelphimorphs have a plantigrade stance (feet flat on the ground) and the hind feet have an opposable digit with no claw. Like some New World monkeys, opossums have prehensile tails. Like all marsupials, the fur consists of awn hair only, and the females have a pouch. The tail and parts of the feet bear scutes. The stomach is simple, with a small cecum. Notably, the male opossum has a forked penis bearing twin glandes.^[4]

Opossums have a remarkably robust immune system, and show partial or total immunity to the venom of rattlesnakes, cottonmouths, and other pit vipers.^[5]^[6] Opossums are about eight times less likely to carry rabies than wild dogs, and about one in eight hundred opossums are infected with this virus.^[7]

Reproduction and life cycle

File:Babiesinpouch2.jpg

Sleeping Virginia opossum with babies in her relaxed pouch

As a marsupial, the opossum has a reproductive system including a divided uterus and marsupium, which is the pouch.^[8] Opossums do possess a placenta,^[9] but it is short-lived, simple in structure, and, unlike that of placental mammals, is not fully functional.^[10] The young are therefore born at a very early stage, although the gestation period is similar to many other small marsupials, at only 12 to 14 days.^[11] Once born, the offspring must find their way into the marsupium to hold onto and nurse from a teat. The species are moderately sexually dimorphic with males usually being slightly larger, much heavier, and having larger canines than females.^[12] The largest difference between the opossum and non-marsupial mammals is the bifurcated penis of the male and bifurcated vagina of the female (the source of the term "didelphimorph," from the Greek "didelphys," meaning double-wombed).^[13] Opossum spermatozoa exhibit sperm-pairing, forming conjugate pairs in the epididymis. This may ensure that flagella movement can be accurately coordinated for maximal motility. Conjugate pairs dissociate into separate spermatozoa before fertilization.^[14]

Female opossums often give birth to very large numbers of young, most of which fail to attach to a teat, although as many as thirteen young can attach,^[12] and therefore survive, depending on species. The young are weaned between 70 and 125 days, when they detach from the teat and leave the pouch. The opossum lifespan is unusually short for a mammal of its size, usually only two to four years. Senescence is rapid.^[15]

Diet

Didelphimorphs are opportunistic omnivores with a very broad diet. Their diet mainly consists of carrion and many are killed on highways when scavenging for roadkill. They are also known to eat insects, frogs, birds, snakes, small mammals, slugs, and earthworms. Some of their favorite foods are fruits, and they are known to eat avocados, apples, clementines, and persimmons. Their broad diet allows them to take advantage of many sources of food provided by human habitation such as unsecured food waste (garbage) and pet food.

Behavior

Opossums are usually solitary and nomadic, staying in one area as long as food and water are easily available. Some families will group together in ready-made burrows or even under houses. Though they will temporarily occupy abandoned burrows, they do not dig or put much effort into building their own. As nocturnal animals, they favor dark, secure areas. These areas may be below ground or above.

When threatened or harmed, they will "play possum", mimicking the appearance and smell of a sick or dead animal. This physiological response is involuntary (like fainting), rather than a conscious act. In the case of baby opossums, however, the brain does not always react this way at the appropriate moment, and therefore they often fail to "play dead" when threatened. When an opossum is "playing possum", the animal's lips are drawn back, the teeth are bared, saliva foams around the mouth, the eyes close or half-close, and a foul-smelling fluid is secreted from the anal glands. The stiff, curled form can be prodded, turned over, and even carried away without reaction.^{[citation needed]} The animal will typically regain consciousness after a period of between 40 minutes and 4 hours, a process that begins with slight twitching of the ears.^[16]

Adult opossums do not hang from trees by their tails, as sometimes depicted, though babies may dangle temporarily. Their semi-prehensile tails are not strong enough to support a mature adult's weight. Instead, the opossum uses its tail as a brace and a fifth limb when climbing. The tail is occasionally used as a grip to carry bunches of leaves or bedding materials to the nest. A mother will sometimes carry her young upon her back, where they will cling tightly even when she is climbing or running.

Threatened opossums (especially males) will growl deeply, raising their pitch as the threat becomes more urgent. Males make a clicking "smack" noise out of the side of their mouths as they wander in search of a mate, and females will sometimes repeat the sound in return. When separated or distressed, baby opossums will make a sneezing noise to signal their mother. If threatened, the baby will open its mouth and quietly hiss until the threat is gone.

Hissing or squawking is a defensive process that helps the opossum deter other animals from approaching it.

Biochemistry

Opossums are remarkably resistant to snake venom, ricin, and botulinum .^[17]

In hunting and foodways

The Virginia Opossum was once widely hunted and consumed in the United States.^[18]^[19]^[20]

In Dominica, Grenada, and Trinidad the Common Opossum or manicou is popular^{[citation needed]} and can only be hunted during certain times of the year owing to overhunting. The meat is traditionally prepared by smoking, then stewing. It is light and fine-grained, but the musk glands must be removed as part of preparation. The meat can be used in place of rabbit and chicken in recipes. Historically, hunters in the Caribbean would place a barrel with fresh or rotten fruit to attract opossums that would feed on the fruit or insects.

In Mexico, opossums are known as "tlaquache" or "tlaquatzin". Their tails are eaten as a folk remedy to improve fertility.

Opossum oil (possum grease) is high in essential fatty acids and has been used as a chest rub and a carrier for arthritis remedies given as topical salves.

Opossum pelts have long been part of the fur trade.

Classification

Classification based on Voss and Jansa (2009)^[21]

Family Didelphidae
- Subfamily Glironiinae
  - Genus Glironia
    - Bushy-tailed Opossum (Glironia venusta)
- Subfamily Caluromyinae
  - Genus Caluromys
    - Subgenus Caluromys
      - Bare-tailed Woolly Opossum (Caluromys philander)
    - Subgenus Mallodelphys
      - Derby's Woolly Opossum (Caluromys derbianus)
      - Brown-eared Woolly Opossum (Caluromys lanatus)
  - Genus Caluromyopsis
    - Black-shouldered Opossum (Caluromyopsis irrupta)
- Subfamily Hyladelphinae
  - Genus Hyladelphys
    - Kalinowski's Mouse Opossum (Hyladelphys kalinowskii)
- Subfamily Didelphinae
  - Tribe Didelphini
    - Genus Metachirus
      - Brown Four-eyed Opossum (Metachirus nudicaudatus)
    - Genus Chironectes
      - Yapok or Water Opossum (Chironectes minimus)
        Unnamed subgroup
        Genus Lutreolina
        Lutrine or Thick-tailed Opossum (Lutreolina crassicaudata)
        
        †Genus Hyperdidelphys
        
        Unnamed subgroup
        Genus Didelphis
        White-eared Opossum (Didelphis albiventris)
        
        Big-eared Opossum (Didelphis aurita)
        
        Guianan White-eared Opossum (Didelphis imperfecta)
        
        Common Opossum (Didelphis marsupialis)
        
        Andean White-eared Opossum (Didelphis pernigra)
        
        Virginia Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)
        
        Genus Philander
        A gray and black four-eyed opossum
        
        Anderson's Four-eyed Opossum (Philander andersoni)
        
        Deltaic Four-eyed Opossum (Philander deltae)
        
        Southeastern Four-eyed Opossum (Philander frenatus)
        
        McIlhenny's Four-eyed Opossum (Philander mcilhennyi)
        
        Mondolfi's Four-eyed Opossum (Philander mondolfii)
        
        Olrog's Four-eyed Opossum (Philander olrogi)
        
        Gray Four-eyed Opossum (Philander opossum)
        
        †Genus Thylophorops
  - Tribe Marmosini
    - Genus Marmosa
      - Subgenus Marmosa
        Heavy-browed Mouse Opossum (Marmosa andersoni)
        
        Isthmian Mouse Opossum (Marmosa isthmica)
        
        Rufous Mouse Opossum (Marmosa lepida)
        
        Mexican Mouse Opossum (Marmosa mexicana)
        
        Linnaeus's Mouse Opossum (Marmosa murina)
        
        Quechuan Mouse Opossum (Marmosa quichua)
        
        Robinson's Mouse Opossum (Marmosa robinsoni)
        
        Red Mouse Opossum (Marmosa rubra)
        
        Marmosa simonsi
        
        Tyleria Mouse Opossum (Marmosa tyleriana)
        
        Marmosa waterhousei
        
        Guajira Mouse Opossum (Marmosa xerophila)
        
        Marmosa zeledoni
      - Subgenus Micoureus
        Alston's Mouse Opossum (Marmosa alstoni)
        
        White-bellied Woolly Mouse Opossum (Marmosa constantiae)
        
        Woolly Mouse Opossum (Marmosa demerarae)
        
        Tate's Woolly Mouse Opossum (Marmosa paraguayanus)
        
        Little Woolly Mouse Opossum (Marmosa phaeus)
        
        Bare-tailed Woolly Mouse Opossum (Marmosa regina)
    - Genus Monodelphis (translation of Spanish article)
      Monodelphis domestica
      - Sepia Short-tailed Opossum (Monodelphis adusta)
      - Northern Three-striped Opossum (Monodelphis americana)
      - (Monodelphis arlindoi)^[22]
      - Northern Red-sided Opossum (Monodelphis brevicaudata)
      - Yellow-sided Opossum (Monodelphis dimidiata)
      - Gray Short-tailed Opossum (Monodelphis domestica)
      - Emilia's Short-tailed Opossum (Monodelphis emiliae)
      - Amazonian Red-sided Opossum (Monodelphis glirina)
      - Handley's Short-tailed Opossum (Monodelphis handleyi)^[23]
      - Ihering's Three-striped Opossum (Monodelphis iheringi)
      - Pygmy Short-tailed Opossum (Monodelphis kunsi)
      - Marajó Short-tailed Opossum (Monodelphis maraxina)
      - Osgood's Short-tailed Opossum (Monodelphis osgoodi)
      - Hooded Red-sided Opossum (Monodelphis palliolata)
      - Reig's Opossum (Monodelphis reigi)
      - Ronald's Opossum (Monodelphis ronaldi)
      - Chestnut-striped Opossum (Monodelphis rubida)
      - (Monodelphis sanctaerosae)^[24]
      - Long-nosed Short-tailed Opossum (Monodelphis scalops)
      - Southern Red-sided Opossum (Monodelphis sorex)
      - Southern Three-striped Opossum (Monodelphis theresa)
      - (Monodelphis touan)^[22]
      - Red Three-striped Opossum (Monodelphis umbristriata)
      - One-striped Opossum (Monodelphis unistriata)
    - Genus Tlacuatzin (translation of Spanish article)
      - Grayish Mouse Opossum (Tlacuatzin canescens)
  - Tribe Thylamyini
    - Genus Chacodelphys
      - Chacoan Pygmy Opossum (Chacodelphys formosa)
    - Genus Cryptonanus
      - Agricola's Gracile Opossum (Cryptonanus agricolai)
      - Chacoan Gracile Opossum (Cryptonanus chacoensis)
      - Guahiba Gracile Opossum (Cryptonanus guahybae)
      - Red-bellied Gracile Opossum (Cryptonanus ignitus) † 1962
      - Unduavi Gracile Opossum (Cryptonanus unduaviensis)
    - Genus Gracilinanus
      - Aceramarca Gracile Opossum (Gracilinanus aceramarcae)
      - Agile Gracile Opossum (Gracilinanus agilis)
      - Wood Sprite Gracile Opossum (Gracilinanus dryas)
      - Emilia's Gracile Opossum (Gracilinanus emilae)
      - Northern Gracile Opossum (Gracilinanus marica)
      - Brazilian Gracile Opossum (Gracilinanus microtarsus)
    - Genus Lestodelphys
      - Patagonian Opossum (Lestodelphys halli)
    - Genus Marmosops
      - Bishop's Slender Opossum (Marmosops bishopi)
      - Narrow-headed Slender Opossum (Marmosops cracens)
      - Creighton's slender opossum Marmosops creightoni
      - Dorothy's Slender Opossum (Marmosops dorothea)
      - Dusky Slender Opossum (Marmosops fuscatus)
      - Handley's Slender Opossum (Marmosops handleyi)
      - Tschudi's Slender Opossum (Marmosops impavidus)
      - Gray Slender Opossum (Marmosops incanus)
      - Panama Slender Opossum (Marmosops invictus)
      - Junin Slender Opossum (Marmosops juninensis)
      - Neblina Slender Opossum (Marmosops neblina)
      - White-bellied Slender Opossum (Marmosops noctivagus)
      - Delicate Slender Opossum (Marmosops parvidens)
      - Brazilian Slender Opossum (Marmosops paulensis)
      - Pinheiro's Slender Opossum (Marmosops pinheiroi)
    - Genus Thylamys (translation of Spanish article)
      - Cinderella Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys cinderella)
      - (Thylamys citellus) ^[25]
      - Elegant Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys elegans)
      - (Thylamys fenestrae) ^[26]
      - Karimi's Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys karimii)
      - Paraguayan Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys macrurus)
      - White-bellied Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys pallidior)
      - (Thylamys pulchellus) ^[27]
      - Common Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys pusillus)
      - Argentine Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys sponsorius)
      - Tate's Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys tatei)
      - Dwarf Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys velutinus)
      - Buff-bellied Fat-tailed Mouse Opossum (Thylamys venustus)

References

^ Gardner, A. (2005). Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 3–18. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. 2000. Houghton Mifflin Company. The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 2010-09-12. Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-03.
^ opossum. CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved October 20, 2012.
^ Krause, William J.; Krause, Winifred A. (2006).The Opossum: Its Amazing Story. Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri. p. 39
^ "The Opossum: Our Marvelous Marsupial, The Social Loner". Wildlife Rescue League.
^ Journal Of Venomous Animals And Toxins – Anti-Lethal Factor From Opossum Serum Is A Potent Antidote For Animal, Plant And Bacterial Toxins. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
^ Cantor SB, Clover RD, Thompson RF (07/01/1994). "A decision-analytic approach to postexposure rabies prophylaxis". Am J Public Health. 84 (7): 1144–8. doi:10.2105/AJPH.84.7.1144. PMC 1614738. PMID 8017541. Retrieved 2009-12-29. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Campbell, N. & Reece, J. (2005)BiologyPearson Education Inc.
^ Enders, A.C. & Enders, R.K. (2005). "The placenta of the four-eyed opossum (Philander opossum))". The Anatomical Record. 165 (3): 431–439. doi:10.1002/ar.1091650311.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Krause, W.J. & Cutts, H. (1985). "Placentation in the Opossum, Didelphis virginiana". Acta Anatomica. 123 (3): 156–171. doi:10.1159/000146058. PMID 4061035.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ O'Connell, Margaret A. (1984). Macdonald, D. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. pp. 830–837. ISBN 0-87196-871-1.
^ ^a ^b North American Mammals: Didelphis virginiana. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
^ "Possum Hunt".
^ Moore, H.D. (1996). "Gamete biology of the new world marsupial, the grey short-tailed opossum, monodelphis domestica". Reproduction, fertility, and development. 8 (4): 605–15. doi:10.1071/RD9960605.
^ Opossum Facts. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
^ Found an Orphaned or injured Opossum?. Opossumsocietyus.org. Retrieved on 2012-05-03.
^ ANTI-LETHAL FACTOR FROM OPOSSUM SERUM IS A POTENT ANTIDOTE FOR ANIMAL, PLANT AND BACTERIAL TOXINS. B. V. LIPPS. Retrieved on 2013-11-18.
^ Keith Sutton. Possum days gone by. ESPN Outdoors. January 12, 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
^ Wild Game Recipes online. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
^ The joy of the ‘Joy of Cooking,’ circa 1962. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
^ Voss, Robert S. (2009). "Phylogenetic relationships and classification of didelphid marsupials, an extant radiation of New World metatherian mammals". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 322: 1–177. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b Pavan, Silvia Eliza; Rossi, Rogerio Vieira; Schneider, Horacio (2012). "Species diversity in the Monodelphis brevicaudata complex (Didelphimorphia: Didelphidae) inferred from molecular and morphological data, with the description of a new species". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 165: 190. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00791.x.
^ Flores, D. & Solari, S. 2011. Monodelphis handleyi. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2.
^ Voss, Robert S.; Pine, Ronald H.; Solari, Sergio (2012). "A New Species of the Didelphid Marsupial Genus Monodelphis from Eastern Bolivia". American Museum Novitates. 3740 (3740): 1. doi:10.1206/3740.2.
^ Flores, D. & Teta, P. 2011. Thylamys citellus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2.
^ Flores, D. & Martin, G.M. 2011. Thylamys fenestrae. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2.
^ Flores, D. & Martin, G.M. 2011. Thylamys pulchellus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2.

External links

[msw3-1] Gardner, A. (2005). Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 3–18. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.

[2] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. 2000. Houghton Mifflin Company. The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 2010-09-12. Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-03.

[3] ssum. CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved October 20, 2012.

[4] Krause, William J.; Krause, Winifred A. (2006).The Opossum: Its Amazing Story. Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri. p. 39

[5] "The Opossum: Our Marvelous Marsupial, The Social Loner". Wildlife Rescue League.

[6] Journal Of Venomous Animals And Toxins – Anti-Lethal Factor From Opossum Serum Is A Potent Antidote For Animal, Plant And Bacterial Toxins. Retrieved 2009-12-29.

[7] Cantor SB, Clover RD, Thompson RF (07/01/1994). "A decision-analytic approach to postexposure rabies prophylaxis". Am J Public Health. 84 (7): 1144–8. doi:10.2105/AJPH.84.7.1144. PMC 1614738. PMID 8017541. Retrieved 2009-12-29. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[8] Campbell, N. & Reece, J. (2005)BiologyPearson Education Inc.

[Enders2005-9] Enders, A.C. & Enders, R.K. (2005). "The placenta of the four-eyed opossum (Philander opossum))". The Anatomical Record. 165 (3): 431–439. doi:10.1002/ar.1091650311.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Krause1985-10] Krause, W.J. & Cutts, H. (1985). "Placentation in the Opossum, Didelphis virginiana". Acta Anatomica. 123 (3): 156–171. doi:10.1159/000146058. PMID 4061035.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[EoM-11] O'Connell, Margaret A. (1984). Macdonald, D. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. pp. 830–837. ISBN 0-87196-871-1.

[smithsonian-12] North American Mammals: Didelphis virginiana. Retrieved 2009-12-29.

[13] "Possum Hunt".

[14] Moore, H.D. (1996). "Gamete biology of the new world marsupial, the grey short-tailed opossum, monodelphis domestica". Reproduction, fertility, and development. 8 (4): 605–15. doi:10.1071/RD9960605.

[15] Opossum Facts. Retrieved 2009-12-29.

[16] Found an Orphaned or injured Opossum?. Opossumsocietyus.org. Retrieved on 2012-05-03.

[17] ANTI-LETHAL FACTOR FROM OPOSSUM SERUM IS A POTENT ANTIDOTE FOR ANIMAL, PLANT AND BACTERIAL TOXINS. B. V. LIPPS. Retrieved on 2013-11-18.

[18] Keith Sutton. Possum days gone by. ESPN Outdoors. January 12, 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-29.

[19] Wild Game Recipes online. Retrieved 2009-12-29.

[20] The joy of the ‘Joy of Cooking,’ circa 1962. Retrieved 2009-12-29.

[21] Voss, Robert S. (2009). "Phylogenetic relationships and classification of didelphid marsupials, an extant radiation of New World metatherian mammals". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 322: 1–177. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[wiley1-22] Pavan, Silvia Eliza; Rossi, Rogerio Vieira; Schneider, Horacio (2012). "Species diversity in the Monodelphis brevicaudata complex (Didelphimorphia: Didelphidae) inferred from molecular and morphological data, with the description of a new species". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 165: 190. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00791.x.

[23] Flores, D. & Solari, S. 2011. Monodelphis handleyi. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2.

[24] Voss, Robert S.; Pine, Ronald H.; Solari, Sergio (2012). "A New Species of the Didelphid Marsupial Genus Monodelphis from Eastern Bolivia". American Museum Novitates. 3740 (3740): 1. doi:10.1206/3740.2.

[25] Flores, D. & Teta, P. 2011. Thylamys citellus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2.

[26] Flores, D. & Martin, G.M. 2011. Thylamys fenestrae. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2.

[27] Flores, D. & Martin, G.M. 2011. Thylamys pulchellus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2.

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v t e Game animals and shooting in North America
Game birds	Bobwhite quail Chukar Hungarian partridge Prairie chicken Mourning dove Ring-necked pheasant Ptarmigan Ruffed grouse Sharp-tailed grouse Snipe (common snipe) Spruce grouse Turkey Woodcock	Waterfowl hunters
Waterfowl	Black duck Canada goose Canvasback Gadwall Greater scaup Lesser scaup Mallard Northern pintail Redhead Ross's goose Snow goose Wood duck
Big game	Bighorn sheep Black bear Razorback Brown bear Bison (buffalo) Caribou Cougar (mountain lion) Elk Moose White-tailed deer Wolf Mountain goat Mule deer Pronghorn Muskox Dall sheep Polar bear Whales
Other quarry	American alligator Badger Bobcat Coyote Fox squirrel Gray fox Gray squirrel Opossum Rabbit Raccoon Red fox Snowshoe hare
See also	Bear hunting Big-game hunting Bison hunting Deer hunting Fox hunting Waterfowl hunting Whaling Fishing Wolf hunting Upland hunting