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==Terminology==
==Terminology==
Within the large group known as the "Founding Fathers", there are two key subsets, those who signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776) and those who framed the Constitution in 1787. A further subset includes those who signed the [[Articles of Confederation]].<ref>Stanfield, Jack. ''America's Founding Fathers: Who Are They? Thumbnail Sketches of 164 Patriots'' (Universal-Publishers, 2001).</ref>our mom likes PUSSY PUSSY PUSSY PUSSY spell car backwards and you get the best part of a female!!! :P
Within the large group known as the "Founding Fathers", there are two key subsets, those who signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776) and those who framed the Constitution in 1787. A further subset includes those who signed the [[Articles of Confederation]].<ref>Stanfield, Jack. ''America's Founding Fathers: Who Are They? Thumbnail Sketches of 164 Patriots'' (Universal-Publishers, 2001).


Some historians define the "Founding Fathers" to mean a larger group, including not only the Signers and the Framers but also all those who, whether as politicians, jurists, statesmen, soldiers, diplomats, or ordinary citizens, took part in winning American independence and creating the United States of America.<ref name="Bernstein">R. B. Bernstein, ''The Founding Fathers Reconsidered'' (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).</ref> Historian [[Richard B. Morris]] in 1973 identified the following seven figures as the key Founding Fathers: [[John Adams]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Jay]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], and [[George Washington]].<ref name="MorrisSeven">Richard B. Morris, ''Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries'' (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).</ref> Three of these (Hamilton, Madison and Jay) were authors of the [[Federalist Papers]], advocating ratification of the Constitution.
Some historians define the "Founding Fathers" to mean a larger group, including not only the Signers and the Framers but also all those who, whether as politicians, jurists, statesmen, soldiers, diplomats, or ordinary citizens, took part in winning American independence and creating the United States of America.<ref name="Bernstein">R. B. Bernstein, ''The Founding Fathers Reconsidered'' (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).</ref> Historian [[Richard B. Morris]] in 1973 identified the following seven figures as the key Founding Fathers: [[John Adams]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Jay]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], and [[George Washington]].<ref name="MorrisSeven">Richard B. Morris, ''Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries'' (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).</ref> Three of these (Hamilton, Madison and Jay) were authors of the [[Federalist Papers]], advocating ratification of the Constitution.

Revision as of 18:54, 29 October 2014

The term Founding Fathers of the United States of America refers broadly to those individuals of the Thirteen British Colonies in North America who led the American Revolution against the authority of the British Crown and established the United States of America. It is also used more narrowly, referring specifically to those who either signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776 or who were delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention and took part in drafting the proposed Constitution of the United States.

Terminology

Within the large group known as the "Founding Fathers", there are two key subsets, those who signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776) and those who framed the Constitution in 1787. A further subset includes those who signed the Articles of Confederation.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page). Historian Richard B. Morris in 1973 identified the following seven figures as the key Founding Fathers: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington.[1] Three of these (Hamilton, Madison and Jay) were authors of the Federalist Papers, advocating ratification of the Constitution.

Background

Declaration of Independence, a painting by John Trumbull depicting the Committee of Five presenting their draft of the Declaration of Independence to the Congress on June 28, 1776. Trumbull's painting appears on the reverse of the United States two-dollar bill.[2]

The First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774 and consisted of fifty-six delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies that would become the United States of America. The delegates, who included George Washington, soon to command the army, Patrick Henry, and John Adams, were elected by their respective colonial assemblies. Other notable delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New York's John Jay. This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, established the Continental Association to administer boycott actions against Britain. When the Second Continental Congress came together on May 10, 1775, it was, in effect, a reconvening of the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second.[3] Notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses. Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation.[4] The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey (1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution.[5]

The newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament. The Americans adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a national government which was made up of a one-house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name: the Congress of the Confederation, which met from 1781 to 1789.[6] Later, the Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia.[7] Although the Convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset of many–chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton–was to create a new frame of government rather than to fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution.

Collective biography of the Framers of the Constitution

Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States, by Howard Chandler Christy

In the winter and spring of 1786–1787, twelve of the thirteen states chose a total of 74 delegates to attend what is now known as the Federal Convention in Philadelphia. Nineteen delegates chose not to accept election or attend the debates; for example, Patrick Henry of Virginia thought that state politics were far more interesting and important than national politics, though during the ratification controversy of 1787–1788 he claimed, "I smelled a rat." Rhode Island did not send delegates because of its politicians' suspicions of the Convention delegates' motivations. As a sanctuary for Baptists, Rhode Island's absence at the Convention in part explains the absence of Baptist affiliation among those who did attend. Of the 55 who did attend at some point, no more than 38 delegates showed up at one time.[8]

These delegates represented a cross-section of 18th-century American leadership. Almost all of them were well-educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs. Virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution; at least 29 had served in the Continental Army, most of them in positions of command. Several of the latter were instrumental in establishing the Society of the Cincinnati in 1783. Scholars have examined the collective biography of them as well as the signers of the Declaration and the Constitution.[9]

Political experience

The Framers of the Constitution had extensive political experience. By 1787, four-fifths (41 individuals), were or had been members of the Continental Congress. Nearly all of the 55 delegates had experience in colonial and state government, and the majority had held county and local offices.[10]

Occupations and finances

The 1787 delegates practiced a wide range of high and middle-status occupations, and many pursued more than one career simultaneously. They did not differ dramatically from the Loyalists, except they were generally younger and less senior in their professions.[11]

  • Thirty-five had legal training, though not all of them practiced law. Some had also been local judges.[12]
  • At the time of the convention, 13 men were merchants: Blount, Broom, Clymer, Dayton, Fitzsimons, Shields, Gilman, Gorham, Langdon, Robert Morris, Pierce, Sherman, and Wilson.
  • Seven were major land speculators: Blount, Dayton, Fitzsimons, Gorham, Robert Morris, Washington and Wilson.
  • Eleven speculated in securities on a large scale: Bedford, Blair, Clymer, Dayton, Fitzsimons, Franklin, King, Langdon, Robert Morris, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and Sherman.
  • Fourteen owned or managed slave-operated plantations or large farms: Bassett, Blair, Blount, Johnson, Butler, Carroll, Jenifer, Jefferson, Madison, Mason, Charles Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Rutledge, Spaight, and Washington.
  • Many wealthy Northerners owned domestic slaves: Franklin later freed his slaves and was a key founder of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society. Jay founded the New York Manumission Society in 1785, for which Hamilton became an officer. They and other members of the Society founded the African Free School in New York City, to educate the children of free blacks and slaves. When Jay was governor of New York in 1798, he signed into law a gradual abolition law; fully ending slavery as of 1827. He freed his own slaves in 1798.
  • Broom and Few were small farmers.
  • Eight of the men received a substantial part of their income from public office: Baldwin, Blair, Brearly, Gilman, Livingston, Madison, and Rutledge.
  • Three had retired from active economic endeavors: Franklin, McHenry, and Mifflin.
  • Franklin and Williamson were scientists, in addition to their other activities.
  • McClurg, McHenry, Rush and Williamson were physicians, and Johnson was a college president.

Family and finances

A few of the 1787 delegates were wealthy, but many of the country's top wealth-holders were Loyalists who went to Britain. Most of the others had financial resources that ranged from good to excellent, but there are other founders who were less than wealthy. On the whole they were less wealthy than the Loyalists.[13]

Demographics

Brown (1976) and Harris (1969) provide detailed demographic information on each man.

  • Most of the 1787 delegates were natives of the Thirteen Colonies. Only 9 were born elsewhere: four (Butler, Fitzsimons, McHenry, and Paterson) in Ireland, two (Davie and Robert Morris) in England, two (Wilson and Witherspoon) in Scotland, and one (Hamilton) in the West Indies.
  • Many of them had moved from one state to another. Seventeen individuals had already lived, studied or worked in more than one state or colony: Baldwin, Bassett, Bedford, Dickinson, Few, Franklin, Ingersoll, Hamilton , Livingston, Alexander Martin, Luther Martin, Mercer, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, Read, Sherman, and Williamson.
  • Several others had studied or traveled abroad.

The Founding Fathers had strong educational backgrounds at some of the colonial colleges or abroad.[14] Some, like Franklin and Washington, were largely self-taught or learned through apprenticeship. Others had obtained instruction from private tutors or at academies. About half of the men had attended or graduated from college. Some men held medical degrees or advanced training in theology. Most of the education was in the colonies, but several were lawyers who had been trained at the Inns of Court in London.

Longevity and family life

Death age of the Founding Fathers.

For their era, the 1787 delegates (like the 1776 signers) were average in terms of life spans.[12] Their average age at death was about 67. The first to die was Houston in 1788; the last was Madison in 1836.

Secretary Charles Thomson lived to the age of 94. Johnson died at 92. John Adams lived to the age of 90. A few—Franklin, Jefferson, Madison, Williamson, and Wythe—lived into their eighties. Either 15 or 16 (depending on Fitzsimons's exact age) died in their seventies, 20 or 21 in their sixties, eight in their fifties, and five only in their forties. Three (Alexander Hamilton, Richard Dobbs Spaight and Button Gwinnett) were killed in duels.

Most of the delegates married and raised children. Sherman fathered the largest family: 15 children by two wives. At least nine (Bassett, Brearly, Johnson, Mason, Paterson, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Sherman, Wilson, and Wythe) married more than once. Four (Baldwin, Gilman, Jenifer, and Alexander Martin) were lifelong bachelors. Many of the delegates also had children conceived illegitimately.[15]

Religion

Lambert (2003) has examined the religious affiliations and beliefs of the Founders. Of the 55 delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, 49 were Protestants, and two were Roman Catholics (D. Carroll, and Fitzsimons).[citation needed] Among the Protestant delegates to the Constitutional Convention, 28 were Church of England (or Episcopalian, after the American Revolutionary War was won), eight were Presbyterians, seven were Congregationalists, two were Lutherans, two were Dutch Reformed, and two were Methodists.[citation needed]

A few prominent Founding Fathers were anti-clerical Christians, such as Thomas Jefferson[16][17][18] (who created the so-called Jefferson Bible) and Benjamin Franklin.[19] Others (most notably Thomas Paine, who authored the religious book The Age of Reason[20]) were deists, or at least held beliefs very similar to those of deists.[21]

Historian Gregg L. Frazer argues that the leading Founders (Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Wilson, Morris, Madison, Hamilton, and Washington) were neither Christians nor Deists, but rather supporters of a hybrid "theistic rationalism".[22]

The Treaty of Tripoli, states that "the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion"[23] and was passed unanimously by the Senate and signed by President John Adams.

Post-convention careers

The 1787 delegates' subsequent careers reflected their abilities as well as the vagaries of fate.[24] Most were successful, although seven (Fitzsimons, Gorham, Luther Martin, Mifflin, Robert Morris, Pierce, and Wilson) suffered serious financial reverses that left them in or near bankruptcy. Two, Blount and Dayton, were involved in possibly treasonous activities. Yet, as they had done before the convention, most of the group continued to render public service, particularly to the new government they had helped to create.

Slaves and slavery

Portrait of George Washington and his valet slave William Lee.
See also: George Washington and slavery and Thomas Jefferson and slavery

Many Founding Fathers, including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin owned slaves (Franklin later became an abolitionist) .[25] Slaves and slavery are mentioned only indirectly in the 1787 Constitution. For example, Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 prescribes that "three fifths of all other Persons" are to be counted for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and direct Taxes. Additionally, in Article 4, Section 2, Clause 3, slaves are referred to as "persons held in service or labor".[25][26] The Founding Fathers, however, did make important efforts to contain slavery. Many Northern states had adopted legislation to end or significantly reduce slavery after the American Revolution.[26] In 1782 Virginia passed a manumission law that allowed slave owners to free their slaves by will or deed.[27] As a result, thousands of slaves were manumitted in Virginia.[27] Thomas Jefferson in 1784 proposed to ban slavery in all the Western Territories, which failed to pass Congress by one vote.[26] Partially following Jefferson's plan Congress did ban slavery in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 for territory north of the Ohio River.[26] The international slave trade was banned in all states except South Carolina by 1800. Finally in 1807, President Jefferson signed into law a federally enforced ban on the international slave trade throughout all the United States and territories.[28] President Jefferson, in 1804, however, allowed the domestic expansion or diffusion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory.[29]

Legacy

According to the historian Joseph J. Ellis, the concept of the Founding Fathers of the U.S. emerged in the 1820s as the last survivors died out. Ellis says "the founders," or "the fathers," comprised an aggregate of semi-sacred figures whose particular accomplishments and singular achievements were decidedly less important than their sheer presence as a powerful but faceless symbol of past greatness. For the generation of national leaders coming of age in the 1820s and 1830s – men like Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun – "the founders" represented a heroic but anonymous abstraction whose long shadow fell across all followers and whose legendary accomplishments defied comparison.

"We can win no laurels in a war for independence," Webster acknowledged in 1825. "Earlier and worthier hands have gathered them all. Nor are there places for us ... [as] the founders of states. Our fathers have filled them. But there remains to us a great duty of defence and preservation."[30]

The last remaining founders, also called the "Last of the Romans", lived well into the nineteenth century.[31]

List of the Founding Fathers

Template:Multicol

Signers of the Continental Association

President of First Continental Congress

1. Peyton Randolph

New-Hampshire

2. Nathaniel Folsom
3. John Sullivan

Massachusetts Bay

4. Thomas Cushing
5. Samuel Adams
6. John Adams
7. Robert Treat Paine

Rhode-Island

8. Stephen Hopkins
9. Samuel Ward

Connecticut

10. Eliphalet Dyer
11. Roger Sherman
12. Silas Deane

New-York

13. Isaac Low
14. John Alsop
15. John Jay
16. James Duane
17. Philip Livingston
18. William Floyd
19. Henry Wisner
20. Simon Boerum

New-Jersey

21. James Kinsey
22. William Livingston
23. Stephen Crane
24. Richard Smith
25. John De Hart

Pennsylvania

26. Joseph Galloway
27. John Dickinson
28. Charles Humphreys
29. Thomas Mifflin
30. Edward Biddle
31. John Morton
32. George Ross

The Lower Counties

33. Caesar Rodney
34. Thomas McKean
35. George Read

Maryland

36. Matthew Tilghman
37. Thomas Johnson, Jr.
38. William Paca
39. Samuel Chase

Virginia

40. Richard Henry Lee
41. George Washington
42. Patrick Henry, Jr.
43. Richard Bland
44. Benjamin Harrison
45. Edmund Pendleton

North-Carolina

46. William Hooper
47. Joseph Hewes
48. Richard Caswell

South-Carolina

49. Henry Middleton
50. Thomas Lynch
51. Christopher Gadsden
52. John Rutledge
53. Edward Rutledge

Template:Multicol-break

Signers of the Declaration of Independence

Template:Multicol-break

Delegates to the Constitutional Convention

Signers of the Constitution

Delegates who left the Convention without signing

Convention delegates who refused to sign

Template:Multicol-end

Template:Multicol

Signers of the Articles of Confederation

See also: President of the Continental Congress and List of delegates to the Continental Congress

The following people signed the Articles of Confederation:

Template:Multicol-break

Other founders

The following people are referred to in the cited reliable sources as having been fathers or founders of the United States.

Template:Multicol-end

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Founding Fathers of the United States.

Notes

  1. ^ a b Richard B. Morris, Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).
  2. ^ americanrevolution.org Key to Trumbull's picture
  3. ^ Burnett, Continental Congress, 64–67.
  4. ^ Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 189.
  5. ^ "Signers of the Declaration". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. p. Biography #54. Retrieved April 24, 2014.
  6. ^ "Confederation Congress". Ohio Historical Society. Retrieved October 23, 2010.
  7. ^ Calvin C. Jillson (2009). American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change (5th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-203-88702-8.
  8. ^ See the discussion of the Convention in Clinton L. Rossiter, 1787: The Grand Convention (New York: Macmillan, 1966; reprint ed., with new foreword by Richard B. Morris, New York: W. W. Norton, 1987).
  9. ^ See Brown (19764); Martin (19739); "Data on the Framers of the Constitution," at [1]
  10. ^ Martin (1973); Greene (1973)
  11. ^ Greene (1973)
  12. ^ a b Brown (1976)
  13. ^ Greene (1973).
  14. ^ Brown (1976); Harris (1969)
  15. ^ Staar (January 2009). "Our Founding Fathers". Huffington Post. Retrieved February 22, 2012.
  16. ^ Letter to Alexander von Humboldt, December 6, 1813 "History, I believe, furnishes no example of a priest-ridden people maintaining a free civil government,"
  17. ^ Letter to Horatio G. Spafford, March 17, 1814 "In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own."
  18. ^ The Religion of Thomas Jefferson Retrieved July 9, 2011
  19. ^ Quoted in The New England Currant (July 23, 1722), "Silence Dogood, No. 9; Corruptio optimi est pessima." "And it is a sad Observation, that when the People too late see their Error, yet the Clergy still persist in their Encomiums on the Hypocrite; and when he happens to die for the Good of his Country, without leaving behind him the Memory of one good Action, he shall be sure to have his Funeral Sermon stuff'd with Pious Expressions which he dropt at such a Time, and at such a Place, and on such an Occasion; than which nothing can be more prejudicial to the Interest of Religion, nor indeed to the Memory of the Person deceas'd. The Reason of this Blindness in the Clergy is, because they are honourably supported (as they ought to be) by their People, and see nor feel nothing of the Oppression which is obvious and burdensome to every one else."
  20. ^ Paine, Thomas (1794). The Age of Reason (PDF).
  21. ^ See, e.g., Religioustolerance.org/Deism, Jim Peterson (2007) "The Revolution of Belief: Founding Fathers, Deists, Orthodox Christians, and the Spiritual Context of 18th Century America Robert L. Johnson, "The Deist Roots of the United States of America"
  22. ^ Gregg L. Frazer, The Religious Beliefs of America's Founders: Reason, Revelation, and Revolution (University Press of Kansas; 2012)
  23. ^ Treaty of Peace and Friendship http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/bar1796t.asp
  24. ^ Martin (1973)
  25. ^ a b Wright, William D. (2002). Critical Reflections on Black History. West Port, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. p. 125.
  26. ^ a b c d Freehling, William W. (February 1972). "The Founding Fathers and Slavery". The American Historical Review. 77 (1): 87. doi:10.2307/1856595.
  27. ^ a b The Cambridge History of Law in America. 2008. p. 278.
  28. ^ Freehling, William W. (February 1972). "The Founding Fathers and Slavery". The American Historical Review. 77 (1): 88. doi:10.2307/1856595.
  29. ^ Freehling, William W. (February 1972). "The Founding Fathers and Slavery". The American Historical Review. 77 (1): 85. doi:10.2307/1856595.
  30. ^ Joseph J. Ellis; Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams. (2001) p. 214.
  31. ^ Elizabeth Fox-Genovese; Eugene D. Genovese (2005). The Mind of the Master Class: History and Faith in the Southern Slaveholders' Worldview. Cambridge University Press. p. 278.
  32. ^ a b c d e Encyclopaedia Britannica. Founding fathers: the essential guide to the men who made America (John Wiley and Sons, 2007).
  33. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite jstor}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by jstor:364502, please use {{cite journal}} with |jstor=364502 instead.
  34. ^ Newman, Richard. Freedom's Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers (NYU Press, 2009).
  35. ^ Ballenas, Carl. Images of America: Jamaica (Arcadia Publishing, 2011).
  36. ^ a b Antieau, Chester James (1960). "Natural Rights and the Founding Fathers—The Virginians". Wash. & Lee L. Rev.: 43.
  37. ^ Holmes, David. The Faiths of the Founding Fathers. (Oxford University Press US, 2006).
  38. ^ Wood, Gordon S. Revolutionary Characters, What Made the Founding Fathers Different. (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 225–242.
  39. ^ a b c d e f g h i Buchanan, John. "Founding Fighters: The Battlefield Leaders Who Made American Independence (review)". The Journal of Military History (Volume 71, Number 2, April 2007), pp. 522–524.
  40. ^ a b c d e Cite error: The named reference Bernstein was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  41. ^ Stephen Yafa (2006). Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber. Penguin. p. 75.
  42. ^ a b c d e Dungan, Nicholas. Gallatin: America's Swiss Founding Father (NYU Press 2010).
  43. ^ LaGumina, Salvatore. The Italian American experience: an encyclopedia, page 361 (Taylor & Francis, 2000).
  44. ^ Unger, Harlow (2009). James Monroe: The Last Founding Father. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81808-6.
  45. ^ Kann, Mark E. (1999). The Gendering of American Politics: Founding Mothers, Founding Fathers, and Political Patriarchy. ABC-CLIO. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-275-96112-1.
  46. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite jstor}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by jstor:25073236, please use {{cite journal}} with |jstor=25073236 instead.
  47. ^ Hall, Max. Harvard University Press: a history, page 138 (Harvard University Press 1986).
  48. ^ Burstein, Andrew. "Politics and Personalities: Garry Wills takes a new look at a forgotten founder, slavery and the shaping of America", Chicago Tribune (November 09, 2003): "Forgotten founders such as Pickering and Morris made as many waves as those whose faces stare out from our currency."
  49. ^ a b Rafael, Ray. The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Founding Fathers: And the Birth of Our Nation (Penguin, 2011).
  50. ^ Schwartz, Laurens R. Jews and the American Revolution: Haym Solomon and Others, Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 1987.
  51. ^ Kendall, Joshua. The Forgotten Founding Father: Noah Webster's Obsession and the Creation of an American Culture (Penguin 2011).
  52. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite jstor}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by jstor:27773931, please use {{cite journal}} with |jstor=27773931 instead.
  53. ^ "A Patriot of Early New England", New York Times (December 20, 1931). This book review referred to Wingate as one of the "Fathers" of the United States, per the book title.
  54. ^ The New Yorker, Volume I, page 398 (September 10, 1836): "'The Last of the Romans' — This was said of Madison at the time of his decease, but there is one other person who seems to have some claims to this honorable distinction. Paine Wingate of Stratham, N.H. still survives."

References

  • American National Biography Online, (2000).
  • Richard B. Bernstein, Are We to Be a Nation? The Making of the Constitution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987).
  • R. B. Bernstein, The Founding Fathers Reconsidered (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
  • Richard D. Brown. "The Founding Fathers of 1776 and 1787: A Collective View," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jul. 1976), pp. 465–480 online at JSTOR.
  • Henry Steele Commager, "Leadership in Eighteenth-Century America and Today," Daedalus 90 (Fall 1961): 650–673, reprinted in Henry Steele Commager, Freedom and Order (New York: George Braziller, 1966).
  • Joseph J. Ellis. Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000), winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History.
  • Joanne B. Freeman, Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001).
  • Jack P. Greene. "The Social Origins of the American Revolution: An Evaluation and an Interpretation," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 88, No. 1 (Mar. 1973), pp. 1–22 online in JSTOR.
  • P.M.G. Harris, "The Social Origins of American Leaders: The Demographic Foundations, " Perspectives in American History 3 (1969): 159–364.
  • Mark E. Kann; The Gendering of American Politics: Founding Mothers, Founding Fathers, and Political Patriarchy (New York: Frederick Praeger, 1999).
  • Adrienne Koch; Power, Morals, and the Founding Fathers: Essays in the Interpretation of the American Enlightenment (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1961).
  • Frank Lambert. The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America. (Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press, 2003).
  • Martin, James Kirby. Men in Rebellion: Higher Governmental Leaders and the coming of the American Revolution, (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1973; reprint, New York: Free Press, 1976).
  • Morris, Richard B. Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).
  • Robert Previdi; "Vindicating the Founders: Race, Sex, Class, and Justice in the Origins of America," Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29, 1999
  • Rakove, Jack. Revolutionaries: A New History of the Invention of America(Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2010) 487 pages; scholarly study focuses on how the Founders moved from private lives to public action, beginning in the 1770s
  • Cokie Roberts. Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation (New York: William Morrow, 2005); popular
  • Gordon S. Wood. Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (New York: Penguin Press, 2006)
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