Okra: Difference between revisions
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[[File:Stir-Fried-Okra-2008.jpg|thumb|Stir fried okra]] |
[[File:Stir-Fried-Okra-2008.jpg|thumb|Stir fried okra]] |
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Okra leaves may be cooked in a similar way to the greens of [[beet]]s or [[dandelion]]s.<ref>[http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_2718,00.html?rsrc=search network.com: Okra Greens and Corn Saute], M.S. Milliken & S. Feniger, 1996</ref> The leaves are also eaten raw in salads. Okra seeds may be roasted and ground to form a caffeine-free substitute for [[coffee]].<ref name=tamu/> When importation of coffee was disrupted by the [[American Civil War]] in 1861, the ''Austin State Gazette'' said, "An acre of okra will produce seed enough to furnish a [[Plantation#Plantations in the antebellum American South|plantation]] with coffee in every way equal to that imported from [[Rio de Janeiro|Rio]]."<ref>Austin State Gazette [TEX.], November 9, 1861, p. 4, c. 2, copied in [http://www.uttyler.edu/vbetts/coffee.htm ''Confederate Coffee Substitutes: Articles from Civil War Newspapers''], [[University of Texas at Tyler]]</ref> |
Okra leaves may be cooked in a similar way to the greens of [[beet]]s or [[dandelion]]s.<ref>[http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_2718,00.html?rsrc=search network.com: Okra Greens and Corn Saute], M.S. Milliken & S. Feniger, 1996</ref> The leaves are also eaten raw in salads. Okra seeds may be roasted and ground to form a caffeine-free substitute for [[coffee]].<ref name=tamu/> When importation of coffee was disrupted by the [[American Civil War]] in 1861, the ''Austin State Gazette'' said, "An acre of okra will produce seed enough to furnish a [[Plantation#Plantations in the antebellum American South|plantation]] with coffee in every way equal to that imported from [[Rio de Janeiro|Rio]]."<ref>Austin State Gazette [TEX.], November 9, 1861, p. 4, c. 2, copied in [http://www.uttyler.edu/vbetts/coffee.htm ''Confederate Coffee Substitutes: Articles from Civil War Newspapers''], [[University of Texas at Tyler]]</ref> |
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[[File:Ladies_Finger,_Okra_-_വെണ്ട_05.JPG|thumb|left|okras]] |
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Greenish-yellow edible okra [[vegetable oils|oil]] is pressed from okra seeds; it has a pleasant taste and odor, and is high in [[unsaturated fat]]s such as [[oleic acid]] and [[linoleic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Okra, Potential Multiple-Purpose Crop for the Temperate Zones and Tropics|author= Martin, Franklin W.|volume=36|year=1982|pages=340–345|journal=Economic Botany|doi=10.1007/BF02858558|issue=3}}</ref> The oil content of some varieties of the seed can be quite high, about 40%. Oil yields from okra crops are also high. At 794 kg/ha, the yield was exceeded only by that of [[sunflower oil]] in one trial.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Mays, D.A., W. Buchanan, B.N. Bradford, and P.M. Giordano|year=1990|title=Fuel production potential of several agricultural crops|pages=260–263|journal=Advances in new crops}}</ref> A 1920 study found that a sample contained 15% oil.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/ja01446a023|title=Okra Seed Oil.1|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=42|pages=166|year=1920|last1=Jamieson|first1=George S.|last2=Baughman|first2=Walter F.}}</ref> A 2009 study found okra oil suitable for use as a [[biofuel]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Farooq|first=Anwar|author2=Umer Rashid |author3=Muhammad Ashraf |author4=Muhammad Nadeem |date=March 2010|title=Okra (Hibiscus esculentus) seed oil for biodiesel production|journal=Applied Energy|volume=87|issue=3|pages=779–785|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261909004127|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.09.020}}</ref> |
Greenish-yellow edible okra [[vegetable oils|oil]] is pressed from okra seeds; it has a pleasant taste and odor, and is high in [[unsaturated fat]]s such as [[oleic acid]] and [[linoleic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Okra, Potential Multiple-Purpose Crop for the Temperate Zones and Tropics|author= Martin, Franklin W.|volume=36|year=1982|pages=340–345|journal=Economic Botany|doi=10.1007/BF02858558|issue=3}}</ref> The oil content of some varieties of the seed can be quite high, about 40%. Oil yields from okra crops are also high. At 794 kg/ha, the yield was exceeded only by that of [[sunflower oil]] in one trial.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Mays, D.A., W. Buchanan, B.N. Bradford, and P.M. Giordano|year=1990|title=Fuel production potential of several agricultural crops|pages=260–263|journal=Advances in new crops}}</ref> A 1920 study found that a sample contained 15% oil.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/ja01446a023|title=Okra Seed Oil.1|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=42|pages=166|year=1920|last1=Jamieson|first1=George S.|last2=Baughman|first2=Walter F.}}</ref> A 2009 study found okra oil suitable for use as a [[biofuel]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Farooq|first=Anwar|author2=Umer Rashid |author3=Muhammad Ashraf |author4=Muhammad Nadeem |date=March 2010|title=Okra (Hibiscus esculentus) seed oil for biodiesel production|journal=Applied Energy|volume=87|issue=3|pages=779–785|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261909004127|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.09.020}}</ref> |
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Revision as of 17:36, 3 June 2016
| Abelmoschus esculentus | |
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| Okra plant, with mature, and developing fruits in Hong Kong | |
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| Ladies' Finger cross section | |
| Scientific classification | |
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| Genus: | |
| Species: | A. esculentus
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| Binomial name | |
| Abelmoschus esculentus | |
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| Worldwide okra production | |
| Synonyms[1] | |
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Okra or okro (US: /ˈoʊkrə/ or UK: /ˈɒkrə/), known in many English-speaking countries as ladies' fingers, ochro or gumbo, is a flowering plant in the mallow family. It is valued for its edible green seed pods. The geographical origin of okra is disputed, with supporters of West African, Ethiopian, and South Asian origins. The plant is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions around the world.[2]
Vernacular names in English-speaking nations
The name okra is most often used in the UK, United States and the Philippines, with a variant pronunciation in Caribbean English and Nigeria of okro. The word okra is from the Igbo ọ́kụ̀rụ̀. In Bangladesh, it is called ঢেঁড়স (ḍhēm̐ṛasa). The Hindi word for okra is भिण्डी (bhiṇḍī) and in Gujarati it is known as ભીંડો (bhīṇḍō).[3][4] The plant and its seed pods are also known as "lady's fingers".[5] In various Bantu languages, okra is called (ki)ngombo or a variant,[6] and this is possibly the origin of the name "gumbo", used in parts of the United States and the English-speaking Caribbean.[7]
Structure and physiology
The species is a perennial, often cultivated as an annual in temperate climates, and often grows to around 2 m tall. It is related to such species as cotton, cocoa, and hibiscus. The leaves are 10–20 cm long and broad, palmately lobed with 5–7 lobes. The flowers are 4–8 cm in diameter, with five white to yellow petals, often with a red or purple spot at the base of each petal. The fruit is a capsule up to 18 cm long with pentagonal cross-section, containing numerous seeds.
Abelmoschus esculentus is cultivated throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world for its fibrous fruits or pods containing round, white seeds. It is among the most heat- and drought-tolerant vegetable species in the world and will tolerate soils with heavy clay and intermittent moisture, but frost can damage the pods.
In cultivation, the seeds are soaked overnight prior to planting to a depth of 1–2 cm. Germination occurs between six days (soaked seeds) and three weeks. Seedlings require ample water. The seed pods rapidly become fibrous and woody, and, to be edible, must be harvested within a week of the fruit having been pollinated. The fruits are harvested when immature and eaten as a vegetable.[8] Okra is available in two varieties, green and red. Red okra carries the same flavor as the more popular green okra and differs only in color. When cooked, the red okra pods turn green.[9]
The most common disease afflicting the okra plant is verticillium wilt, often causing a yellowing and wilting of the leaves. Other diseases include powdery mildew in dry tropical regions, leaf spots, and root-knot nematodes.[10]
Origin and distribution
.JPG)
Okra is an allopolyploid of uncertain parentage (proposed parents include Abelmoschus ficulneus, A. tuberculatus and a reported "diploid" form of okra). Truly wild (as opposed to naturalised) populations are not known with certainty and the species may be a cultigen.
The geographical origin of okra is disputed, with supporters of South Asian, Ethiopian and West African origins. Supporters of a South Asian origin point to the presence of its proposed parents in that region. Supporters of a West African origin point to the greater diversity of okra in that region.
The Egyptians and Moors of the 12th and 13th centuries used the Arabic word for the plant, bamya, suggesting it had come into Egypt from the Arabia, but earlier it was probably taken from Ethiopia to Arabia. The plant may have entered southwest Asia across the Red Sea or the Bab-el-Mandeb strait to the Arabian Peninsula, rather than north across the Sahara, or from India. One of the earliest accounts is by a Spanish Moor who visited Egypt in 1216 and described the plant under cultivation by the locals who ate the tender, young pods with meal.[7]
From Arabia, the plant spread around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and eastward. The plant was introduced to the Americas by ships plying the Atlantic slave trade[11] by 1658, when its presence was recorded in Brazil. It was further documented in Suriname in 1686. Okra may have been introduced to southeastern North America from Africa in the early 18th century. By 1748, it was being grown as far north as Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson noted it was well established in Virginia by 1781. It was commonplace throughout the southern United States by 1800, and the first mention of different cultivars was in 1806.[7]
As food
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
|---|---|
| Energy | 138 kJ (33 kcal) |
7.45 g | |
| Sugars | 1.48 g |
| Dietary fiber | 3.1 g |
0.19 g | |
2.00 g | |
| Vitamins | Quantity %DV† |
| Vitamin A equiv. | 4% 36 μg |
| Thiamine (B1) | 17% 0.2 mg |
| Riboflavin (B2) | 5% 0.06 mg |
| Niacin (B3) | 6% 1 mg |
| Vitamin C | 26% 23 mg |
| Vitamin E | 2% 0.27 mg |
| Vitamin K | 26% 31.3 μg |
| Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
| Calcium | 6% 82 mg |
| Iron | 3% 0.61 mg |
| Magnesium | 14% 57 mg |
| Potassium | 10% 299 mg |
| Zinc | 5% 0.58 mg |
| Other constituents | Quantity |
| Water | 90.17 g |
| †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[12] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[13] | |
The products of the plant are mucilaginous, resulting in the characteristic "goo" or slime when the seed pods are cooked; the mucilage contains soluble fiber. Some people prefer to minimize the sliminess; keeping the pods intact, and brief cooking, for example stir-frying, help to achieve this. Cooking with acidic ingredients such as a few drops of lemon juice, tomatoes, or vinegar may also help. Alternatively, the pods can be sliced thinly and cooked for a long time so the mucilage dissolves, as in gumbo. The immature pods may be pickled.
Okra is a popular health food due to its high fiber, vitamin C, and folate content. Okra is also known for being high in antioxidants. Okra is also a good source of calcium and potassium.[14]
Okra leaves may be cooked in a similar way to the greens of beets or dandelions.[15] The leaves are also eaten raw in salads. Okra seeds may be roasted and ground to form a caffeine-free substitute for coffee.[7] When importation of coffee was disrupted by the American Civil War in 1861, the Austin State Gazette said, "An acre of okra will produce seed enough to furnish a plantation with coffee in every way equal to that imported from Rio."[16]
Greenish-yellow edible okra oil is pressed from okra seeds; it has a pleasant taste and odor, and is high in unsaturated fats such as oleic acid and linoleic acid.[17] The oil content of some varieties of the seed can be quite high, about 40%. Oil yields from okra crops are also high. At 794 kg/ha, the yield was exceeded only by that of sunflower oil in one trial.[18] A 1920 study found that a sample contained 15% oil.[19] A 2009 study found okra oil suitable for use as a biofuel.[20]
Regional preparations
Africa
- Malawi: Okra it is preferred cooked and stirred with sodium bicarbonate to make it more slimy. It is then commonly eaten with nshima (pap) made from raw maize flour or maize husks flour.
- Nigeria: draw soup is a popular dish, often eaten with garri or cassava.
- Zimbabwe: okra (idelele, in Northern Ndebele derere, in Shona) is often sliced thinly and mixed with onion tomato and bicarbonate of soda and boiled to form a thick paste, served with isitshwala in Ndebele or sadza in Shona (a thick paste made from mielie-meal).
- Sierra Leone: Okra (okro): is commonly prepared with palm oil and served with fufu.
- Egypt: okra (bam-ya) is prepared in several ways, either cooked as stew with ground beef and onions tomato, or made in the oven.
- Tanzania: okra (bamia) is typically prepared by cutting into small pieces and mix with finely chopped young pumpkin leaves. The mix is boiled with added sodium bicarbonate and table salt until well cooked to make a delicacy known as mlenda. Mlenda is then served with ugali and eaten with bare hands rather than spoons.
Americas
- Brazil: Frango com quiabo (chicken with okra) is especially famous in the region of Minas Gerais, and it is the main ingredient of caruru, a Bahian food with dende oil.
- Caribbean: Okra is commonly eaten in soup. In Curaçao the soup is known as jambo which primarily is made out of the okra's mucilage. It is often prepared with fish and funchi, a dish made out of cornmeal and boiling water. In Haiti, it is called "callooloo" and is cooked with rice and maize, and also used as a sauce for meat. In Cuba, it is called quimbombó, along with a stew using okra as its primary ingredient. In the Dominican Republic okra is known as "molondrón". It is eaten in salad and also cooked with rice. In Trinidad and Tobago okra is used as one of the main ingredients in the thick soup-like melting-pot dish called callaloo. In Trinidad and Tobago and other West Indian territories such as Barbados it is also used as a main ingredient in the cornmeal-based meal called cou-cou that is similar to polenta.
- United States: Gumbo, a hearty stew whose key ingredient is often okra, is found throughout the Gulf Coast of the United States and in the South Carolina Lowcountry. Reflecting the region's African and French heritage, gumbo is often cooked in cast iron pots and served over rice. Deep- or shallow-fried okra coated with cornmeal, flour, etc., is widely eaten in the southern United States.[21] A modern preparation of Okra is breaded with corn meal, deep fried and served with ranch dressing. Several cafe and nationwide restaurant chains serve deep fried okra, typically with a side order of a sauce such as buttermilk (or ranch) dressing. Okra pickles are also popular, normally made during the summer when it is readily available at produce markets and vegetable stands. Traditional Southern American preparation is sliced okra with a light coating of self rising cornmeal and spices, and shallow fried in a skillet with no dipping sauces.
Asia
- Japan: Okra increased in popularity toward the end of the 19th century, served with soy sauce and katsuobushi as tempura, steamed with ponzu and more recently as a nigiri sushi topping.
- Malaysia: okra is commonly a part of yong tau foo cuisine, typically stuffed with processed fish paste (surimi) and boiled with a selection of vegetables and tofu, and served in a soup with noodles.
- Middle East / West Asia / Mediterranean: In Syria, Tunisia, Albania, Bosnia, Greece, Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia, Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey, Yemen, Palestine, Cyprus and Israel,[22] okra is widely used in a thick stew made with vegetables and meat. In the Turkish cuisine, other than the stew, which can also be made using dried okra, bamya is also made as a cold starter or meze dish with the use of olive oil and is eaten sprinkling lemon juice over the plate. West Asian cuisine uses young okra pods, usually cooked whole.
- Philippines, okra can be found among traditional dishes like pinakbet, dinengdeng, and sinigang. Because of its mild taste and ubiquity, okra can also be cooked adobo-style, or served steamed or boiled in a salad with tomatoes, onion and bagoong.
- India, chopped pieces are stir-fried with spices, pickled, salted or added to gravy-based preparations such as bhindi ghosht and sambar. It is also simmered in coconut-based curries or tossed with ground mustard seeds. In India, it is also an ingredient in curries, in which it is used whole after trimming only the excess stalk and keeping the hard conical top, which is discarded at the time of eating. In South India, okra is cut into small circular pieces about 1/4 inch thick and stir-fried in oil with salt and hot pepper powder to make curry. However, when used in sambar, it is cut into pieces which are one inch thick to prevent it from dissolving when the sambar is let to simmer. In India, okra harvesting is done at later than in Mediterranean regions, when the pods and seeds are larger.
- Vietnam, okra is the important ingredient in the dish canh chua.
As fibre
Bast fibre from the stem of the plant has industrial uses.[23]
References
- ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved 3 October 2014.
- ^ National Research Council (2006-10-27). "Okra". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables. Lost Crops of Africa. Vol. 2. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-10333-6. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
{{cite book}}: External link in|chapterurl=|chapterurl=ignored (|chapter-url=suggested) (help) - ^ Harper, Douglas. "okra". Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^ McWhorter, John H. (2000). The Missing Spanish Creoles: Recovering the Birth of Plantation Contact Languages. University of California Press. p. 77. ISBN 0-520-21999-6. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
- ^ "Alternative Cold Remedies: Lady's Fingers Plant", curing-colds.com (accessed 3 June 2009)
- ^ "gumbo". Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 1933.
- ^ a b c d "Okra, or 'Gumbo,' from Africa, tamu.edu
- ^ "Okra Seed" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-10-17.
- ^ "Red Okra Information, Recipes and Facts". Retrieved 2015-09-30.
- ^ "Growing okra". Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland. 19 September 2007. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ " Okra gumbo and rice" by Sheila S. Walker, The News Courier, unknown date
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 2024-05-09. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
- ^ Duvauchelle, Joshua (26 May 2011). "Okra Nutrition Information". LiveStrong.com. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ network.com: Okra Greens and Corn Saute, M.S. Milliken & S. Feniger, 1996
- ^ Austin State Gazette [TEX.], November 9, 1861, p. 4, c. 2, copied in Confederate Coffee Substitutes: Articles from Civil War Newspapers, University of Texas at Tyler
- ^ Martin, Franklin W. (1982). "Okra, Potential Multiple-Purpose Crop for the Temperate Zones and Tropics". Economic Botany. 36 (3): 340–345. doi:10.1007/BF02858558.
- ^ Mays, D.A., W. Buchanan, B.N. Bradford, and P.M. Giordano (1990). "Fuel production potential of several agricultural crops". Advances in new crops: 260–263.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Jamieson, George S.; Baughman, Walter F. (1920). "Okra Seed Oil.1". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 42: 166. doi:10.1021/ja01446a023.
- ^ Farooq, Anwar; Umer Rashid; Muhammad Ashraf; Muhammad Nadeem (March 2010). "Okra (Hibiscus esculentus) seed oil for biodiesel production". Applied Energy. 87 (3): 779–785. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.09.020.
- ^ Madison, Deborah (2008). Renewing America's Food Traditions. Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 167. ISBN 1933392894.
- ^ Devlin, Julia; Yee, Peter (March 2005). "Trade Logistics in Developing Countries: The Case of the Middle East and North Africa". The World Economy. 28 (3): 435–456 (445).
- ^ De Rosa, I.M.; Kenny, J.M.; Puglia, D.; Santulli, C.; Sarasini, F. (2010). "Morphological, thermal and mechanical characterization of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) fibres as potential reinforcement in polymer composites". Composites Science and Technology. 70 (1): 116–122. doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2009.09.013.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
External links
- Abelmoschus esculentus at ITIS
- Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Medicinal Plant Images Database (School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University) Template:Zh-hant Template:En icon
- Abelmoschus esculentus in West African plants – A Photo Guide.
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