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Crowd collapses and crushes

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Lyons bridge disaster 1711

Crowd collapses and crushes are catastrophic incidents that can occur when a body of people becomes dangerously overcrowded. When a body of people reaches or exceeds the density of four or five people per square metre, the pressure on each individual can cause the crowd to collapse in on itself, or become so densely packed that individuals are crushed and asphyxiated. At this density, too, a crowd can start to act like a fluid, sweeping individuals around without their volition. Such incidents are invariably the product of failures in organizations, and most major crowd disasters can be prevented by simple crowd management strategies.[1] Such incidents can occur at large gatherings such as sporting, commercial, social, or religious events, though the critical factor is crowd density rather than crowd size. It is estimated that some 66,000 people were injured in crowd collapse and crush incidents between 1992 and 2002, though crowd scientists believe this to be a gross underestimate. It is also believed that current legislation offers inadequate protection against such events being allowed to happen.

Background

One study has calculated that there were 232 deaths and over 66,000 injuries in the ten years between 1992 and 2002,[2] and it is believed by crowd scientists that such incidents are both vastly under-reported and increasing in frequency. One estimate is that only one in ten crowd injuries occurring in doorbuster sales are reported, while many, if not most, injuries at rock concerts go unreported.[2]

Dynamics

In an increasingly urbanized world, crowds are a fact of life. Most people have a sense of personal space, and will be comfortable at certain distances with others, depending on their relationship. However, daily life can force people into close contact; on public transport, in lifts, queuing, shopping, or just walking busy streets. This can be exacerbated at social venues, such as sporting events, concerts, religious festivals, where the danger of overcrowding is ever-present.

The average individual occupies an oval floorspace approximately one foot deep by two foot wide (ie. 30 cm by 60 cm, or 0.14 square metre), and at densities of one to two per sq m individuals can move freely without contact. Even if people are moving quickly, at this density it is possible to avoid obstacles and the chance of a crowd-related incident is minimal. Even at three or four per sq m the risk is low;[3] however at densities of five per sq m the possibilities for individuals to move become limited, while at higher densities (six to seven per sq m) individuals become pressed against each other, and can be unable to move of their own volition. At this point a crowd can begin to act like a fluid, with individuals moved about by the pressure of those around them, and shockwaves can pass through the crowd as pressures within the crowd change.[4] This can be highly dangerous, although in some cases this experience is actively sought, such as at rock concerts[5] or football matches,[6] where the excitement, camaraderie, and ‘literally going with the flow’ is an essential part of the experience,[7] or at religious festivals. The dangers inherent in these conditions is that the crowd will collapse in on itself, or become so densely packed that individuals are crushed and asphyxiated.

Crowd collapses

A crowd collapse occurs when a crowd is so dense that each individual is touching others all around, and is to an extent supported by those around. This can occur if the crowd is moving or stationary. If a person then falls, the support to those around is lost, while the pressure from those further out remains, causing people to fall into the void. This process is then repeated, causing a bigger void, and will progress until the pressure eases: meanwhile those who have fallen are at risk of being smothered by the weight of bodies on top, or be trampled as the crowd is swept over them.[8] An example of a progressive crowd collapse was the 2015 Mina stampede in Mecca, Saudi Arabia during the Hajj[9] where over 2,400 people were reported to have died.

Crowd crushes

At even higher densities (up to nine per sq m) a crowd can become so packed that people are crushed together to such an extent they can no longer breathe, and are asphyxiated. Such crowd crushes can occur when a moving crowd is funnelled into a smaller and smaller space, or when it meets an obstacle (such as a dead end, or a locked door), or when an already densely-packed crowd has an influx of people, causing a pressure wave towards those at the front of the crowd. In this situation those entering may be unaware of the effect on those in front, and continue to press in.[8] Examples of crushes are the Hillsborough disaster in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England in 1989 and the Love Parade disaster in Duisburg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany in 2010.[9]

Causes of death

In crowd collapse and crush incidents the most common cause of death is asphyxiation, caused either by vertical stacking, as people fall on top of one another, or by horizontal stacking, where people are crushed together or against an unyielding barrier. Victims can also exhibit fractures due to pressure,[10] or trampling injuries, when a crowd has swept over them where they have lain.[10]

Prevention

Main article: Crowd control

It is believed that most major crowd disasters can be prevented by simple crowd management strategies.[11] Crushes can be prevented by organization and traffic control, such as barriers. On the other hand, barriers in some cases may funnel the crowd towards an already-packed area, such as in the Hillsborough disaster. Hence barriers can be a solution in preventing or a key factor in causing a crush. One problem is lack of feedback from people being crushed to the crowd pressing behind – feedback can instead be provided by police, organizers, or other observers, particularly raised observers, such as on platforms or horseback, who can survey the crowd and use loudspeakers to communicate and direct a crowd.[12] In some cases it may be possible to take simple measures such as spreading movements out over time.[13]

A factor that may contribute to a crush is inexperienced security officers who assume that people's behaviour in a dense crowd is voluntary and dangerous, and start applying force or preventing people from moving in certain directions. In the 1989 Hillsborough disaster, some police and stewards were so concerned with what they saw as possible hooliganism that they took actions that actually made matters worse.[13]

There is risk of a crush when crowd density exceeds about four people per square meter. For a person in a crowd a signal of danger, and a warning to get out of the crowd if possible, is the sensation of being touched on all four sides. A later, more serious, warning is when one feels shock waves travelling through the crowd, due to people at the back pushing forward against people at the front with nowhere to go.[12] Keith Still of the Fire Safety Engineering Group, University of Greenwich, said "Be aware of your surroundings. Look ahead. Listen to the crowd noise. If you start finding yourself in a crowd surge, wait for the surge to come, go with it, and move sideways. Keep moving with it and sideways, with it and sideways."[8]

After the 1883 crush known as the Victoria Hall disaster in Sunderland, England which killed 183 children, a law was passed in England which required all public entertainment venues to be equipped with doors that open outwards, for example using crash bar latches that open when pushed.[14] Crash bars are required by various building codes.

Examples of stampedes and crushes

Further information: List of human stampedes and crushes
  • 11 February 1823: Carnival tragedy of 1823 in Valletta, Malta, where about 110 boys died after falling down a flight of steps to get bread.[15]
  • 16 June 1883: Victoria Hall disaster in Sunderland, England where 183 children died rushing to get treats behind a narrow door at the end of a downward staircase.
  • 18 May 1896: Khodynka Tragedy in Moscow, Russia where 1,389 people died and over 1,300 were injured.
  • 24 December 1913: Italian Hall disaster in Calumet, Michigan, United States, 73 people died trying to escape from a false fire alarm at a crowded Christmas party.
  • 6 June 1941: during a World War II Japanese bombing of Chongqing, China, 1,000 people were killed in a stampede at the Jiaochangkou tunnel, an access point to an air raid shelter.[16]
  • 5 March 1953: Joseph Stalin funeral stampede in Moscow, Soviet Union: In the public's efforts to pay their respects to Joseph Stalin's casket, an unknown number of people died as they were crushed and trampled by the amassed crowd.[17] Nikita Khrushchev provided an estimate that 109 people died in the crowd.[18]
  • 2 January 1971: 1971 Ibrox disaster in Glasgow, Scotland: 66 killed and 200 injured attempting to leave an Old Firm football match. Nearly half the victims were under 20.
  • 3 December 1979: The Who concert disaster: 11 fans suffocated to death in the crush to enter Riverfront Coliseum, in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. Thousands of excited fans tried to enter through very few open doors. The resulting crush killed eleven fans and injured many others.
  • 15 April 1989: Hillsborough disaster in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England: 97 people killed and 766 injured as an influx of football fans were crammed into standing terraces in an effort to ease overcrowding outside.
  • 2 July 1990: 1990 Mecca tunnel tragedy in Mecca, Saudi Arabia: 1,426 people killed.
  • 14 January 1999: 1999 Sabarimala stampede in Sabarimala, Kerala, India: 53 people killed.
  • 4 February 2006: PhilSports Stadium stampede: 73 people were killed and about 400 were injured during a stampede in Pasig, Philippines. About 30,000 people had been gathered outside the stadium waiting to participate in the first anniversary episode of the former television variety show Wowowee.[19][20]
  • 30 September 2008: 2008 Jodhpur stampede: 224 people killed and 425 injured in Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India.
  • 24 July 2010: Love Parade disaster: 21 people killed and more than 500 injured during a stampede on the ramp leading to the Love Parade in Duisburg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
  • 14 January 2011: 2011 Sabarimala stampede in Sabarimala, Kerala, India: 106 people killed.
  • 31 December 2014: 2014 Shanghai stampede: 36 people were killed and 47 injured in Shanghai, China during New Year's celebrations[21]
  • 24 September 2015: 2015 Hajj stampede: At least 2,177 people crushed to death and 934 injured at the annual Hajj in Mecca, Saudi Arabia[22]
  • 3 June 2017: 2017 Turin stampede: 2 people killed[23] and more than 1,500 people were injured when panic erupted during a screening of the 2017 UEFA Champions League Final in Turin, Italy.[24]
  • 29 September 2017: 2017 Mumbai stampede, Elphinstone (now Prabhadevi) Station, Mumbai, India: More than 22 people died and hundreds were injured on a narrow footbridge. Reports have said that panic triggered by a falling concrete slab made people rush in fear of the bridge collapsing, leading to the stampede. The bridge was densely packed during rush hour and heavy rains packed more people taking shelter near the bridge.
  • 7 January 2020: Qasem Soleimani funeral Stampede, Kerman, Iran: 56 people dead and over 200 injured following a stampede during the funeral procession of Iranian military commander Qasem Soleimani.[25]
  • 22 August 2020: Los Olivos stampede in Lima, Peru: at least 13 people dead and 6 injured in a stampede resulting from a police raid on an illegal gathering at a nightclub during the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru.[26]
  • 30 April 2021: 2021 Meron crush, Meron, Israel: at least 45 dead and 150 injured in a crush during a religious celebration.[27]
  • 5 November 2021: Astroworld Festival crowd crush in Houston, Texas, United States: 8 people died and 300 injured in a crush at a music festival during a performance by rapper Travis Scott.[28] A ninth and tenth person died of injuries days later.[29]

See also

References

  1. ^ Fruin p.6
  2. ^ a b Pearl, p.4
  3. ^ Pearl p.6
  4. ^ Pearl p.7
  5. ^ interview with Genius by Paul Wertheimer
  6. ^ Kop memories Pete Sampara
  7. ^ Humour Loyalty and Passion – Memories of the old Spion Kop Pete, 22 Oct 2013 at This is Anfield; retrieved 21 November 2021
  8. ^ a b c Hajj crush: how crowd disasters happen, and how they can be avoided Leo Benedictus 3 October 2015 The Guardian
  9. ^ a b What caused the Hajj Tragedy? Jack Moore 24 September 2015, Newsweek
  10. ^ a b Mourners crushed at Stalin’s funeral Evgenii Evtushenko 1963
  11. ^ Fruin, John. The Causes and Prevention of Crowd Disasters Archived 2011-07-08 at the Wayback Machine. www.crowddynamics.com. March 1993, revised January 2002. "Virtually all crowd deaths are due to compressive asphyxia and not the 'trampling' reported by the news media."
  12. ^ a b Ripley, Amanda (19 Jan 2009). "How Not To Get Trampled at the Inauguration". Slate. Retrieved 12 May 2009. Article acknowledges traffic engineer John J. Fruin and G. Keith Still of Crowd Dynamics Ltd.
  13. ^ a b Ro, Christine (21 March 2018). "The secret science that rules crowds". BBC Future. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  14. ^ Stoner, Sarah (13 Jun 2008). "Children's deaths that shocked the world". Sunderland Echo. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 13 June 2008.
  15. ^ Hoe, Susanna (2015). "Valletta". Malta: Women, History, Books and Places (PDF). Oxford: Women's History Press (a division of Holo Books). pp. 371–372. ISBN 9780957215351. OCLC 931704918. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2016.
  16. ^ Howard, Joshua (2004). Workers at War: Labor in China's Arsenals, 1937-1953. Stanford University Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0804748964.
  17. ^ Evtushenko, Evgenii (September 2015). "Mourners Crushed at Stalin's Funeral". Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
  18. ^ Khlevniuk, Oleg (2017). Stalin: New Biography of a Dictator. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300219784.
  19. ^ "Manila stadium stampede kills 73". BBC. 4 February 2006. Retrieved 5 Apr 2016.
  20. ^ "73 dead in stampede at Philippine game show". ABC News (Australia). 4 February 2006. Archived from the original on 20 Aug 2009. Retrieved 5 Apr 2016.
  21. ^ Levy, Megan (1 January 2015). "New Year's Eve stampede in Shanghai kills dozens". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 1 Jan 2015.
  22. ^ "Hajj pilgrimage: At least 700 pilgrims killed, over 850 injured in stampede". ABC News. September 24, 2015. Retrieved 25 Sep 2015.
  23. ^ "Torino, piazza San Carlo – Dopo la morte di Erika Pioletti ipotesi di reato è omicidio colposo". Il Fatto Quotidiano. June 16, 2017. Retrieved June 16, 2017.
  24. ^ "Panic erupts during Champions League viewing in Italy, injuring 1,500". BNO News. June 3, 2017. Archived from the original on 7 Apr 2018. Retrieved June 4, 2017.
  25. ^ Karimi, Nasser; Vahdat, Amir; Gambrell, Jon (8 Jan 2020). "Iran strikes back at US with missile attack at bases in Iraq". Star Tribune. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
  26. ^ "Los Olivos: Al menos 13 personas murieron tras una intervención policial en fiesta en una discoteca". Grupo RPP. August 22, 2020. Retrieved August 25, 2020.
  27. ^ Hadas Gold; Amir Tal; Abeer Salman; Michael Schwartz (30 Apr 2021). "Dozens killed in crush at religious event in northern Israel, emergency services say". CNN. Retrieved 30 Apr 2021.
  28. ^ "Travis Scott's Astroworld: Eight killed after crowd surge at Texas festival". BBC News. 2021-11-06. Retrieved 2021-11-06.
  29. ^ CNN, Travis Caldwell, Jennifer Henderson, Chloe Melas, Gregory Lemos, Rosa Flores and Amir Vera. "Astroworld victim Bharti Shahani has died, bringing the death toll to 9". CNN. Retrieved November 11, 2021. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Sources

External links

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