Mongol invasions of Korea
The Mongol invasions of Korea consisted of a series of campaigns by the Mongol Empire against Korea, then known as Goryeo, from 1231 to 1259. There were six major campaigns at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean peninsula, ultimately resulting in Korea becoming a tributary ally of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty for approximately 80 years.
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The initial campaigns
Gojong of Goryeo (reigned 1213-1259) was the twenty-third king of the Goryeo dynasty. In 1225, the Mongol Empire demanded tribute from Goryeo, but Goryeo refused, and the Mongol envoy Chu-ku-yu was killed.
In 1231, Ögedei Khan ordered the invasion of Korea as part of a general campaign to conquer China. The Mongols reached Chungju in central Korean peninsula, but after costly concessions, Korea convinced the Mongols to withdraw.
In 1232, the Imperial Court of Goryeo moved from Songdo to Ganghwa Island in the Bay of Gyeonggi, and started the construction of significant defenses to prepare for the Mongol threat.
The Mongols protested the move, and immediately launched a second attack. Although they reached parts of the southern peninsula, the Mongols failed to capture Ganghwa Island, and were repelled in Gwangju. The Mongol leader Sartai (撒禮塔) was killed by a monk in strong civilian resistance at Yongin, forcing the Mongols to withdraw again. This is the only known incident of the commander of a Mongol Army being killed in battle.
Third campaign and treaty
In 1235, the Mongols began a campaign that ravaged parts of Gyeongsang and Jeolla Provinces. Civilian resistance was strong, and the Imperial Court at Ganghwa attempted to strengthen its fortress. Korea won several victories but the Korean military could not withstand the waves of invasions. In 1236, Gojong ordered the re-creation of the Tripitaka Koreana, destroyed during the 1232 invasion. This collection of Buddhist scriptures took 15 years to carve on some 81,000 wooden blocks, and is preserved to this day.
In 1238, Goryeo relented, and sued for peace. The Mongols withdrew, in exchange for Goryeo's agreement to send the Imperial Family as hostages. However, Goryeo sent an unrelated member of the imperial line. Incensed, the Mongols demanded clearing the seas of Korean ships, relocation of the court to the mainland, the hand-over of anti-Mongol bureaucrats, and, again, the Imperial family as hostages. In response, Korea sent a distant princess and ten children of nobles, rejecting the other demands.
Fourth and fifth campaigns
In 1247, the Mongols began the fourth campaign against Goryeo, again demanding the return of the capital to Songdo and the Imperial Family as hostages. With the death of Guyuk Khan in 1248, however, the Mongols withdrew again.
Upon the 1251 ascension of Mongke Khan, the Mongols again repeated their demands. When Goryeo refused, the Mongols began a large campaign in 1253. Gojong finally agreed to move the capital back to the mainland, and sent one of his sons, Prince Angyeonggong (安慶公) as a hostage. The Mongols withdrew thereafter.
Sixth campaign and peace
The Mongols later learned that top Goryeo officials remained on Ganghwa Island, and had punished those who negotiated with the Mongols. Between 1253 and 1258, the Mongols under Jalairtai launched four devastating invasions in the final successful campaign against Korea.
There were two parties within Goryeo: the literati party opposed the war with Mongol, but the military junta led by the Choe clan pressed for continuing the war. When the dictator Choi was murdered by the the literati party, the peace treaty was concluded[1]. The treaty permitted the sovereign power and tranditional culture of Goryeo, implying that the Mongols gave up conquering Goryeo under Mongol's direct control[2]
Aftermath
Internal struggles within the royal court continued regarding the peace with the Mongols until 1270.
Since Choe Chung-heon, Goryeo had been a military dictatorship, actually ruled by the private army of the powerful Choe family. Some of these military officials formed the Sambyeolcho Rebellion (1270-1273) and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of the Korean peninsula.
Beginning with King Wonjong, for approximately 80 years, Korea was a tributary ally of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. The Goryeo dynasty survived under Mongolian influence until King Gongmin began to push Mongolian forces back around 1350.