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This article is about the concept of the meaning of life. For other uses, see Meaning of life (disambiguation).

The meaning of life is an elusive concept that has been the subject of much philosophical, scientific and theological speculation.[1][2][3][4]
It is often expressed in various related questions:[5]

Throughout history, scientists and philosophers, theologians and artists, and generally, men and women of every age, race, and culture have discussed and debated many questions in the quest to discover and understand the meaning of life.[5]

Philosophy, belief, faith and the meaning of life

Philosophy is concerned with issues like ethics, what constitutes genuine knowledge and proper reasoning. The issue of the meaning of life has a rich tradition of thought in the history of philosophy. For example, philosophers have considered such questions as:

Some philosophical disciplines have also aimed to develop an understanding of life that explains, regardless of how we came to be here, what we should do now that we are here. (see Humanist views of the meaning of life)

Religions are belief systems relying on the faith of their adherents. They may be defined as organized traditions of rules and orthodoxy that attempt to serve spiritual needs of their followers.[17] Religions give an answer to the question "What is the meaning of my life?", where the religious answer tends to include a certain moral demand.[26] Generally, religions play important parts in devising spiritual terms that soothe grieve in bereavements and keep humanity gentle-hearted with facing death.[27]

Spirituality is generally linked to one's deepest inwardness and innermost being and also involves awareness, sensibility and transcendence. Contemporary understandings of spirituality emphasise the dynamic quality of spirituality as lived experience; an experience linked to our bodies, to nature, to our relationships with others and society. It is an experience which seeks the fullness of life, a life that touches the spirit, in the midst of all our struggles of living. Spirituality can also be described as a different way of seeing, seeing our own lives, those of others and all life on earth in a different light and from a different perspective, the discovery of new insight and wisdom whereby we reshape the inwardness of our lives. Spirituality is always connected to an inner-awakening, a discovery and transforming of one's understanding and insight.[7] Spirituality may basically be summarized as understanding the meaning of life, all of life and reality itself.[28]

Mysticism focuses more on direct experience than religions generally do. Various forms of mysticism are associated with one or more religions, and some may form an independent movement, thus the view of mysticism varies widely according to how each speaker describes it. In general, the view is broadly that life is a happening, an unfolding, and the meaning of life is conceived as how one fits in the scheme of things. The purpose of life is mystical enlightenment, which can be defined as ending a sense of an individual self by means of mystical cultivation. It involves knowledge of the fundamental nature of reality and living a life in accordance with it.[29]

Western philosophy

Ancient philosophy

Plato and Aristotle, as represented in Raphael's The School of Athens fresco.
Platonic view of the meaning of life
Main article: Platonism

Plato was one of the earliest and most influential thinkers of Western philosophy, most famous for his realist stance regarding the existence of universals. In the Theory of Forms he asserts that universals do not exist in the way that ordinary physical objects exist, but rather with a sort of ghostly or heavenly mode of existence. He describes the Form of the Good in his dialogue, The Republic, speaking through the character of Socrates. The Idea of the Good is the child or offspring (ekgonos) of the Good, the ideal or perfect nature of goodness, and so an absolute measure of justice.

For Plato the meaning of life is to attain the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (or Form) of the Good. It is from this which all things that are good and just gain their usefulness and value. Humans have a duty to pursue the good, but no one can hope to do this successfully without philosophical reasoning.

Aristotelian view of the meaning of life
Main article: Aristotelian ethics

Aristotle, a student of Plato, was another of the earliest and most influential philosophers. He believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology) but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, he thought a person had to study in order to become 'good'. Thus if a person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to actually do virtuous activities.

In order to do this, Aristotle had to first establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good':

Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor. (NE 1.1)

But, if action A is done with the goal B, the goal B would also have a goal, goal C. Goal C would also have a goal and this would continue until something stopped the infinite regress. This was the Highest Good, and he said that it must have three characteristics:

  • desirable for its own sake
  • not desirable for the sake of some other good
  • all other ‘goods’ desirable for its sake

Thus for Aristotle, the meaning of life involves achieving eudaemonia, which is usually translated as "happiness," but could also be "well-being" or "flourishing."

What is the highest good in all matters of action? As to the name, there is almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness. (NE 1.4)
Cynic views of the meaning of life

Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies. It offered people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty. Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine, the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarised as follows:[30][31]

  1. The goal of life is happiness which is to live in agreement with Nature.
  2. Happiness depends on being self-sufficient, and a master of mental attitude.
  3. Self-sufficiency is achieved by living a life of Virtue.
  4. The road to Virtue is to free oneself from any influence such as wealth, fame, or power, which have no value in Nature.
  5. Suffering is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a vicious character.
Cyrenaic views of the meaning of life

Cyrenaicism is a hedonistic school founded by Aristippus of Cyrene. It was one of the earliest Socratic schools, and emphasized one side only of the Socratic teaching. Taking Socrates' assertion that happiness is one of the ends of moral action, Aristippus maintained that pleasure was the supreme good, creating an ultra-hedonistic view. He found bodily gratifications, which he considered more intense, preferable to mental pleasures. They also denied that we should defer immediate gratification for the sake of long-term gain. In these respects they differ from the Epicureans.[32][33]

Bust of Epicurus leaning against his disciple Metrodorus in the Louvre Museum.
Epicurean views of the meaning of life
Further information: Hedonism and Epicureanism

Epicurus believed that while the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the 'static pleasures' of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering.

When we say...that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.[34]

Epicureanism rejects immortality and mysticism; it believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is as mortal as the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death:

Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us.[35]

Stoic views of the meaning of life

Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law. The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligent practice of logic, reflection, and concentration. Stoics believe that to live according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, which entails the recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people.

The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself, and it is exemplified by wisdom and self-control. The meaning of life is to be free of suffering through apatheia (απαθεια) (Greek) understood as being objective or having "clear judgment", rather than simple indifference. Another essential aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individual’s spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature."[35] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".[35]

19th century philosophy

Nihilist views of the meaning of life

Nihilism rejects claims to knowledge and truth, and explores the meaning of an existence without knowable truth. Though nihilism tends toward defeatism, one can find strength and reason for celebration in the varied and unique human relationships it explores. From a nihilist point of view, morals are valueless and only hold a place in society as false ideals created by various forces. The characteristic that distinguishes nihilism from other skeptical or relativist philosophies is that, rather than merely insisting that values are subjective or even warrantless, nihilism declares that nothing is of value, as the name implies.

Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. He summed up the process of nihilism as "the devaluing of the highest values".[36] He also saw nihilism as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisted that it was something to be overcome, by calling the nihilist's life-negating values in question and return meaning to the Earth.[2]

Martin Heidegger described nihilism as the movement whereby Being is forgotten and is wholly transformed into value, or in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.[36]

Pragmatist views of the meaning of life

Pragmatism is a school of philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s. Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility and practicality as vital components of truth. Pragmatism holds that it is only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that theories and data acquire significance. Pragmatism does not hold, however, that just anything that is useful or practical should be regarded as true, or anything that helps us to survive merely in the short-term; pragmatists argue that what should be taken as true is that which most contributes to the most human good over the longest course. In practice, this means that for pragmatists, theoretical claims should be tied to verification practices — i.e., that one should be able to make predictions and test them − and that ultimately the needs of humankind should guide the path of human inquiry.

Pragmatic philosophers suggest that rather than a truth about life, we should seek a useful understanding of life. William James argued that truth could be made but not sought.[37][38] Thus, the meaning of life is a belief about the purpose of life that does not contradict one's experience of a purposeful life. Roughly, this could be applied as: "The meaning of life is those purposes which cause you to value it." To a pragmatist, the meaning of life, your life, can be discovered only through experience.

Utilitarian views of the meaning of life
File:Bentham.jpg
Jeremy Bentham

The origins of Utilitarianism are often traced back as far as the Greek philosopher Epicurus, but as a specific school of thought, it is generally credited to Jeremy Bentham.[39] Bentham found pain and pleasure to be the only intrinsic values in the world: "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure." From this he derived the rule of utility, that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Later, after realizing that the formulation recognized two different and potentially conflicting principles, he dropped the second part and talked simply about "the greatest happiness principle."

Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day and the father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated according to Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarising much of his father's work whilst still in his teens."[40]

In his famous short work, Utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill argued that cultural, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures are of greater value than mere physical pleasure, because the former would be valued more highly by competent judges than the latter. A competent judge, according to Mill, is anyone who has experienced both the lower pleasures and the higher.[41]

20th century philosophy

Existentialist views of the meaning of life

There has been a wide variety in Existentialist thought. Arthur Schopenhauer offered a bleak answer to "what is the meaning of life?" by determining one's life as a reflection of one's will and the will (and thus life) as being an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. He saw salvation, deliverance, or escape from suffering in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism.[42][43] Søren Kierkegaard invented the term "leap of faith" and argued that life is full of absurdity and the individual must make his or her own values in an indifferent world. For Kierkegaard, an individual can have a meaningful life (or at least one free of despair) if the individual relates the self in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes his or her life to the commitment despite the inherent vulnerability of doing so.[44]

Humanist views of the meaning of life
Further information: Humanism (life stance)
File:Humanism.png
The "Happy Human" symbol representing Humanism.

According to Humanism, the human race came to be by reproducing in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral part of nature, which is self-existing.[45][46] Knowledge does not come from supernatural sources, rather it flows from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis preferably utilizing the scientific method: the nature of the universe is what we discern it to be.[45] As are "values and realities", which are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"[45] and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence.[47][48] "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."[46]

Humanists believe that human purpose is determined by humans, completely without supernatural influence; it is human personality (in the broadest sense) that is the purpose of a human's life, and this humanism seeks to develop and fulfill:[45] "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity."[47] Humanists seek enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. The happiness of the individual is inextricably linked to the well-being of humanity as a whole, in part because we are social animals which find meaning in relationships, and because cultural progress benefits everybody who lives in that culture.[46][47]

Posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used as synonyms) are extensions of humanistic values. Like humanism, they propose that we should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible, with an emphasis on reconciling the views of Renaissance humanism to correspond more closely to the 21st century's concepts of technoscientific knowledge. These views insist that all living things be granted the basic option to inquire after their own personal or social "meaning(s) of life" (including meanings that human beings are currently incompetent to comprehend) as much as it is physically possible to do so, and no less.[49] They insist that the meaning of life is necessarily indefinite and ambiguous, and should be left to the philosophical inclinations of the individual; however there is a moral imperative common to all intelligent agents to improve their lives.

Logical positivist views of the meaning of life

Of the meaning of life, Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: expressed in language, the question is meaningless. This is because "meaning of x" is a term in life usually conveying something regarding the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or that which should be noted regarding x, etc. So when "life" is used as "x" in the term "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive and therefore nonsensical, or would simply refer to the obvious fact that the condition of life is essential for having meaning (in life).

In other words, things in a person's life can have meaning (importance), but a meaning of life itself, i.e., apart from those things, can't be discerned. In this context, a person's life is said to have meaning (significance to himself and others) in the form of the events throughout his life and the results of his life in terms of achievements, a legacy, family, etc. But to say that life itself has meaning is a misuse of language, since any note of significance or consequence is relevant only in life (to those living it), rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell, for example, wrote that although he found it impossible to bring himself to seriously believe that his distaste for torture was similar in nature to his distaste for broccoli, he nonetheless could find no satisfactory empirical method of proving this:[35]

When we try to be definite as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed that pleasure is the Good roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and in the end, one side is seen to have the better case - or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question as to whether this or that is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others...Questions as to "values" - that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects - lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that in this they are right, but I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this or that has "value," we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.[50]

Abrahamic religions

Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions – Christianity, Judaism and Islam

Jewish views of the meaning of life

Jews believe the purpose of life is to serve God[51] and to prepare for the world to come[52] "Olam Haba".[53]

Judaism regards life as a precious gift from God; precious not only because it is a gift from God, but because, for humans, there is a uniqueness attached to that gift. Of all the creatures on Earth, humans are created in the image of God. Our lives are sacred and precious because we carry within us the Divine Image, and with it, unlimited potential.[54]

While Jewish thoughts are about elevating yourself in spirituality and connecting to God and trying to prepare for "Olam Haba", Jewish thought is to use this world "Olam Hazeh" to help elevate ourself into the next.

Kabbalah takes it one step further. The Zohar states that the reason for life is to better one's soul. The soul descends to this world and endures the trials of this life so that it can reach a higher spiritual state upon its return to the source.

Christian views of the meaning of life

Christians draw many of their beliefs from the Holy Bible, and believe that loving God is the meaning of life. In order to achieve this, one would ask for forgiveness of sins and receive God into their heart. Christianity believes in an eternal afterlife, and declares that it is an unearned gift from God through the love of Jesus Christ, which is to be received or forfeited by faith. (Ephesians 2:8–9; Romans 6:23); (John 3:16–21; John 3:36).

Christians believe they are being tested and purified so that they may have a place of responsibility with Jesus in the eternal Kingdom to come. What the Christian does in this life will determine his place of responsibility with Jesus in the eternal Kingdom to come. Jesus encouraged Christians to be overcomers, so that they might share in the glorious reign with Him in the life to come: "To him who overcomes, I will give the right to sit with me on my throne, just as I overcame and sat down with my Father on his throne. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches." (Rev 3:21–22)

The Bible states that it is God "in whom we live and move and have our being" (Acts 17:28), that to Fear God is the beginning of wisdom, and to depart from evil is the beginning of understanding (Job 28:28) and that "In Christ Jesus are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge" (Colossians 2:3). The Bible also says, in Ecclesiastes 12:13 "Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man", and "Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God." Corinthians 10:31Template:Bibleverse with invalid book

In one of the Westminster Articles (1647), the Shorter Catechism, the first question is "What is the chief end of man?", or in other words, 'What is man's main purpose?'. The answer, according to the Catechism is "Man's chief end is to glorify God and enjoy him forever."[citation needed]

Islamic views of the meaning of life

In Islam the ultimate objective of man is to seek the pleasure of Allah by living in accordance with the Divine guidelines as stated in the Qur'an and the Tradition of the Prophet. The Qur'an clearly states that the whole purpose behind the creation of man was for gloryfying and worshipping Allah:[55] "I only created jinn and man to worship Me" (Qur'an 51:56). Worshiping in Islam means to testify to the oneness of God in his lordship, names and attributes. To Muslims, life was created as a test, and how well one performs on this test will determine whether one finds a final home in Jannah (Heaven) or Jahannam (Hell).

The esoteric Muslim view, generally held by Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure. Creation works as a grand game,[56] with Allah as the greatest prize.[56]

Bahá'í views of the meaning of life

Two Bahá'í symbols in one; a nine-pointed star with the calligraphy of the Greatest Name in the centre

The Bahá'í Faith, founded by Bahá'u'lláh, emphasizes the spiritual unity of all humankind.[57] According to Bahá'í teachings, religious history has unfolded through a series of God's messengers who brought teachings suited for the capacity of the people at their time, and whose fundamental purpose is the same.

The purpose of human life, say Bahá'ís, is spiritual growth. This is conceived almost as an organic process, like the development of a fetus, and continues after death. Neither a physical Heaven or Hell are present in the Bahá'í Faith. The Bahá'í teachings present "Heaven" and "Hell" to be states of spiritual nearness or remoteness to God, and that life continues in an afterlife through which the soul may progress infinitely through ever-more-exalted spiritual realms, eventually coming to stand before the Presence of God. The Bahá'í faith teaches that this process continues on in the spiritual afterlife, and not through a series of births and re-births as in reincarnation.
[58][59][60]

Bahá'ís believe that while God's essence can never be fully fathomed, he can be understood through his "names and attributes." These are sometimes referred to as gems, and include such qualities as compassion, justice, knowledge, and wisdom. Education (especially of a spiritual nature) reveals the divine gems which God has placed within our souls.[61]

Dharmic religions and philosophy

Hindu views of the meaning of life

Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrines with universal acceptance among all denominations.[62] Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul—the true "self" of every person, called the ātman—is eternal.[63] The purusharthas are the canonical four ends or aims of human life.[64][65][66] These goals are, from lowest to highest importance: Kāma (sensual pleasure or love), Artha (wealth), Dharma (righteousness or morality) and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of reincarnation)

According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as the Advaita Vedanta school), the ātman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Brahman is described as "The One Without a Second;" hence these schools are called "non-dualist."[67] The goal of life according to the Advaita school is to realize that one's atman (soul) is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.[68] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation or freedom)[63][69][70] The notion of lila (literally, "play") refers to the idea of the universe as a cosmic game, and meaning as a "play of significance".[71] This "play", manifested in the million-formed inexhaustible richness of beings and events, is what gives us the key to the meaning of life.[72]

Other Hindu schools, such as the dualist Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools, understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. On these conceptions, the ātman is dependent on Brahman, and the meaning of life is to achieve Moksha through love towards God and on God's grace.[69]

File:Jain hand.svg
The Jain dharmacakra, which symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa, meaning non-violence, and halting the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth.

Jain views of the meaning of life

Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the ascetic teachings of jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the non-living become attached to the living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use of the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.[73]

Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul.

Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to Veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.[74]

Buddhist views of the meaning of life

One of the central views in Buddhism is a nondual worldview, in which subject and object are the same, and the sense of doer-ship is illusionary. On this account, the meaning of life is to become enlightened as to the nature and oneness of the universe. According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists Dukkha, which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by desire and it can be brought to cessation by following the Noble Eightfold Path.

The eight-spoked Dharmacakra. The eight spokes represent the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism.

This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), or the "Four Noble Truths".

  1. There is suffering (duhkha)
  2. There is a cause of suffering — craving (trishna)
  3. There is the cessation of suffering (nirvana)
  4. There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering — the Noble Eightfold Path

Theravada Buddhism promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis." This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith; however, the scriptures of the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nibbana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death.

Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from individual Suffering (Dukkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based around the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.

Sikh views of the meaning of life

The monastic Sikh religion founded by Guru Nanak Dev, and the term "sikh" means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.

The Sikh Gurus tell us that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths. Therefore, Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."[75] Sikhs do not consider they have an "exclusive" right to salvation. Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God.[76] Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.[77]

A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself (see pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,[78] Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable. God is omnipresent (sarav viāpak) in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. Nanak stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.[78]

According to Sikhism, every creature has a soul. In death, the soul passes from one body to another until final liberation. The journey of the soul is governed by the karma of the deeds and actions we perform during our lives, and depending on the goodness or wrongdoings committed by a person in their life they will either be rewarded or punished in their next life. As the spirit of God is found in all life and matter, a soul can be passed onto other life forms, such as plants and insects - not just human bodies. A person who has evolved to achieve spiritual perfection in his lifetimes attains salvation – union with God and liberation from rebirth in the material world.

In Taoism, the Taijitu symbolizes the unity of opposites between ying and yang, described in the theory of the Taiji.

East Asian religions and philosophy

Taoist views of the meaning of life

The Taoists cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self-correction and self realization. It is the objective for all adherents to understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.

Within the theology of Taoism, all man were originally a being called yuanling from Taiji and Tao, the meaning in life for the adherents is to realise the temporal nature of the existence, and all adherents are expected to practise, hone and conduct their mortal lives by way of Xiuzhen and Xiushen, as a preparation for the spiritual transcendence thereafter. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living...the simple answer is here within ourselves."[79]

A torii is a traditional Japanese gate commonly found at the entry to a Shinto shrine.

Shinto views of the meaning of life

Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.[27]

Confucian views of the meaning of life

Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because mankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving the good nature through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative energy. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Wei-Ming's quote, "we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."[80]

Non-Abrahamic Iranian religions and philosophy

Zoroastrian views of the meaning of life

Founded by Zoroaster, the Zoroastrianism message was that humans are responsible for the moral choices they make in a world of both good and evil options. For those who chose good actions, a blissful afterlife is promised, as well as a return to earth to continue life in a physical form. Those who chose evil actions would be doomed to a hellish afterlife.[81]

Scientific approaches to the meaning of life

The primary aim of the scientific approach to the meaning of life is to describe the empirical facts about human existence. Claims that empirical science can shed light on issues such as the meaning of life are highly disputed within the scientific and philosophy-of-science communities, and have been from the very beginning of science. In spite of this, science has provided many theories about the origin of life, in the areas of abiogenesis (for the origins of biological life) and cosmogony (for the origins of the universe). Both of these areas are quite hypothetical; cosmogony because no existing physical model can accurately describe the very early universe (the instant of the Big Bang),[82] and abiogenesis because the environment of the young earth is still not accurately known, and even though the conditions and chemical processes that may have been present then have been reproduced in a laboratory, to produce organic molecules, those very conditions are still under debate.[83][84][85]

The true nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science, and more specifically in relation to the hard problem of consciousness. Various theories relating to consciousness have been postulated,[86][87] including hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime,[88][89] electromagnetic theories of consciousness,[90][89][91] the Multiple Drafts Model,[92][93][94][95][96] the holonomic brain theory,[97] Orch-OR[98] and the many-minds interpretation.[99]

Origin and nature of biological life

The exact mechanisms by which biological life could have originated from inanimate matter are unknown, but multiple theories have been posited, including the contemporary RNA world hypothesis. Some scientists claim life began on Earth as a primeval soup, while others believe that a more "complete" form of life arrived on our planet through panspermia. The initial mechanisms by which primitive cells were formed notwithstanding, almost all scientific origin theories are contingent upon the evolution of traits through mutation and natural selection.[100] Near the end of the 20th century, equipped with insights from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists such as George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins and David Haig, to name a few, have suggested that insofar as there may be a primary function to life, it may be the survival of genes; following this approach, success isn't measured in terms of the survival of species, but rather in terms of the successful replication of genes.[101]

In addition to naturalistic arguments for the origin of life on Earth, some philosophers and theologians have postulated that a "watchmaker" or intelligent designer guided its development. This teleological argument has been rejected by most scientists, including Richard Dawkins, who has often affirmed that teleology is an illusion and does not exist, like in his Discovery Science video 'The Big Question: Why are we here?'[102] and in books such as The Blind Watchmaker[103] and The God Delusion.[104][105][106]

Significance and value of life

Science may or may not be able to tell us what is most valuable in life in a philosophical sense, but some studies bear on related questions: Researchers in "positive psychology" (and earlier and less rigorously in Humanistic Psychology) study factors that lead to satisfaction in our lives. Social psychology examines factors that lead to infants thriving or failing to thrive, and in other areas of psychology questions of motivation, preference, and what people value. Economists have learned a great deal about what is valued in the marketplace; and sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc.

"What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?"[8] Here are some of the life goals people choose, and some of their beliefs on what the purpose of life is:

...to have life

...to seek wisdom and knowledge

  • ...to expand one's perception of the world.[118]
  • ...to learn as many things as possible in life.[119]
    ...to know as much as possible about as many things as possible.[120]
  • ...to know and master the world.[121][122]
    ...to know and master nature.[123]
  • ...to seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the mind, as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and find happiness.[124]
  • ...to face our fears and accept the lessons life offers us.[125]
  • ...to understand the mystery of God.[125]
  • ...to know God.[126]
  • ...to know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.[127]
  • ...to find the meaning of life.[128]
    ...to find the purpose of life.[129]
    ...to find a reason to live.[130]
  • ...to resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.[131]

...to do good, to do the right thing

  • ...to leave the world a better place than you found it.[10]
    ...to do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.[10]
  • ...to benefit others.[15]
  • ...to give more than you take.[10]
  • ...to end suffering.[132][133][134]
  • ...to create equality.[135][136][137]
  • ...to challenge oppression.[138]
  • ...to distribute wealth.[139][140]
  • ...to be generous.[141][142]
  • ...to contribute to the well-being and spirit of others.[143]
  • ...to help others,[1][142] to help one another.[144]
    ...to take every chance to help another while on your journey here.[10]
  • ...to be creative and innovative.[143]
  • ...to forgive.[10]
    ...to accept and forgive human flaws.[145]
  • ...to be emotionally sincere.[146]
  • ...to be responsible.[146]
  • ...to be honorable.[146]
  • ...to seek peace.[146]

...to pursue a certain form of fulfillment, perfection or success

  • ...to chase dreams.[10]
    ...to live one's dreams.[118]
  • ...to seek beauty in all its forms.[10]
  • ...to seek happiness[147][148] and flourish.[1]
  • ...to expand one's potential in life.[118]
  • ...to be a true authentic human being.[149]
  • ...to become the person you've always wanted to be.[150]
  • ...to become the best version of yourself.[5]
  • ...to rule the world.[151]
  • ...to fill the Earth and subdue it.[117] (Genesis 1:28)
  • ...to spend it for something that will outlast it.[146]
  • ...to matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all.[146]
  • ...to keep one's soul pure.[146]
  • ...to be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.[146]
  • ...to follow our destiny.[125]
    ...to submit to our destiny.[151]
  • ...to create your own destiny.[152]

...to love, to feel, to feel joy in living

  • ...to love more.[10]
  • ...to love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back.[10]
  • ...to treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.[10]
  • ...to have fun.[143]
    ...to enjoy life.[125]
    ...to seek pleasure.[146]
  • ...to be compassionate.[146]
  • ...to be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.[10]
  • ...to love others as best we possibly can.[10]
  • ...to love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.[10]
  • ...to love God.[126]

One should not search for the meaning of life

  • The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.[131]
  • You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.[10]
  • The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life.[10]

Life has no meaning

  • Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.[131]
  • Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.[10]
  • There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.[10]
  • Life is a bitch and then you die.[150]

Humorous, aesthetic and entertainment media treatments

The mystery of life and its meaning is an often recurring subject in popular culture, featured in entertainment media and various forms of art, and more specifically in music, literature and visual arts. For example:

The Ultimate Answer to Life, The Universe and Everything in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and illustration of the bizarre and humorous nature of the universe described in Douglas Adams' series
In Life, the Universe and Everything, it is confirmed that 42 is indeed the Ultimate Answer, and that it is impossible for both the Ultimate Answer and the Ultimate Question to be known about in the same universe, as they will cancel each other out and take the universe with them, to be replaced by something even more bizarre, and that this may have already happened.[154]
Later, in the hopes that his subconscious holds the question, Arthur Dent attempts to guess at the question, and comes up with "What do you get when you multiply six by nine?" This was in fact not the Ultimate Question, because there had been computing errors which had been caused by the unexpected arrival of the Golgafrinchans on prehistoric Earth.[155] However, Dent, Fenchurch, and a dying Marvin did see 'God's Final Message to His Creation' ("We apologise for the inconvenience").[156]
  • In Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, there are several allusions to the meaning of life. In "Part VI B: The Meaning of Life" a cleaning lady explains "Life's a game, you sometimes win or lose" and later a waiter describes his personal philosophy "The world is a beautiful place. You must go into it, and love everyone, not hate people. You must try and make everyone happy, and bring peace and contentment everywhere you go."[157] At the end of the film, we can see Michael Palin being handed an envelope, he opens it, and provides the viewers with 'the meaning of life': "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations."[157][158][159]
  • In The Simpsons episode "Homer the Heretic", a representation of God tells Homer what the meaning of life is, but as usual the one who really wanted to know (the viewer) is left disappointed. The dialogue goes as follows:
Homer: God, what's the meaning of life?
God: Homer, I can't tell you that.
Homer: Why not?
God: You'll find out when you die.
Homer: Oh, I can't wait that long.
God: You can't wait 6 months?
Homer: No, tell me now...
God: Oh, OK... The meaning of life is...
At this point, the credits music starts and the show ends. The writer's original idea was that a commercial would come after this scene and before the credits, thus having the commercial interrupt God's explanation to humorous effect.
  • The crew of the Red Dwarf is captured in episode 2 of season 5 by a powerful being called The Inquisitor, a self-repairing simulant who survived until the end of time and, coming to the conclusion that there is no God and no afterlife, decided that the only point of life was to make something of yourself. The Inquisitor then proceeds to put each of the Red Dwarf misfits on trial and forces them to justify their existence. Failure to do so will result in a sentence of being erased from history.
  • In Peanuts, Charlie Brown explains he thinks the purpose of life is to make others happy, to which Lucy responds that she doesn't think she is making anyone happy, and—more importantly—no one is making her happy, so someone isn't doing their job, eventually she asks him "You say we're put on this earth to make others happy? ... What are the others put here for?"[161] On several other occasions, Charlie has asserted several other things in relation to life and its meaning: "In the book of life, the answers aren't in the back."[161][162], "That's the secret to life... replace one worry with another."[161][163], "Happiness is anyone and anything at all that's loved by you."[164] and "Life is like an ice cream cone...you have to lick it one day at a time."[165] Lucy has also declared "Life is too short to waste it listening to some person who doesn't know when to shut up! Time is too valuable!"[161] and "All you really need is love, but a little chocolate now and then doesn't hurt."[161][166]
  • The Alchemist and the movie City Slickers both present the meaning of life as an individual journey to find one's own "path". In this context, the "path", similar to what is defined in Buddhism as the 4th Noble Truth: the Eightfold Path, is best explained simply as the overall way one chooses to lead their life.
  • In A Man Without a Country, author Kurt Vonnegut sums up life with the words: "We're all here to fart around. Don't let anyone tell you any different!". In Vonnegut's novel Breakfast of Champions, "To be the eyes and ears and conscience of the Creator of the Universe, you fool." is Kilgore Trout's unwritten reply to the question "What is the purpose of life?"
  • A quotation by Anton Chekhov states "You ask "What is life?" That is the same as asking "What is a carrot?" A carrot is a carrot and we know nothing more."[167]
  • In Dune, a seminal science fiction novel by Frank Herbert, the meaning of life is defined as "not a question to be answered, but a reality to be experienced".

See also

Look up meaning of life in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

References

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  99. ^ David Bohm; Basil J. Hiley (1993). The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory. Routledge. p. 397. ISBN 0415065887.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  100. ^ Charles Darwin (1859). On the Origin of Species.
  101. ^ Richard Dawkins (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press. p. 224. ISBN 019857519X.
  102. ^ "Why are we here?". The Big Questions. Season 1. Episode 10. 2007-11-25. {{cite episode}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |episodelink= (help); External link in |title= (help); Unknown parameter |serieslink= ignored (|series-link= suggested) (help)
  103. ^ Richard Dawkins (1986). The Blind Watchmaker. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31570-3.
  104. ^ Richard Dawkins (2006). The God Delusion. Bantam Books. ISBN 0-618-68000-4.
  105. ^ Alister E. McGrath (2007). The Dawkins Delusion?. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. ISBN 978-0-281-05927-0.
  106. ^ Alister E. McGrath (2005). Dawkins' God: Genes, Memes, and the Meaning of Life. Blackwell Publishing. p. 202. ISBN 140512539X.
  107. ^ Lopez, Mike (September 22, 1999). "Episode III: Relativism? A Jedi craves not these things". The Michigan Daily. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
  108. ^ Lovatt, Stephen C. (2007). New Skins for Old Wine. Universal Publishers. pp. The Meaning of Life. ISBN 1581129602.
  109. ^ a b Raymond Kurzweil; Terry Grossman (2004). Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever [5]. Holtzbrinck Publishers. ISBN 1-57954-954-3. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  110. ^ Bryan Appleyard (2007). How to Live Forever Or Die Trying: On the New Immortality. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743268687.
  111. ^ Cameron, Donald (2001). The Purpose of Life. Woodhill Publishing. ISBN 0-9540291-0-0.
  112. ^ Wayne, Larry. "Expanding The Oneness". SelfGrowth.com. Retrieved 2007-07-26. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  113. ^ Nick Lane (2005). Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192804812.
  114. ^ Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan (2004). Genetics and the Logic of Evolution. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN 0471238058.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  115. ^ Jennifer Ackerman (2001). Chance in the House of Fate: A Natural History of Heredity. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0618219099.
  116. ^ Boyce Rensberger (1996). Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195125002.
  117. ^ a b Thomas Patrick Burke (2004). The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts. Blackwell Publishing. p. 400. ISBN 140511049X.
  118. ^ a b c Roger Ellerton PhD, CMC (2006). Live Your Dreams... Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1412047099.
  119. ^ John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing. p. 1808. ISBN 0-87220-349-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  120. ^ John E. Findling, Frank W. Thackeray (2001). Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century. Greenwood Press. p. 240. ISBN 0313290792.
  121. ^ Peter Harrison (2001). The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science. Cambridge University Press. p. 326. ISBN 0521000963.
  122. ^ Steven Dillon (2006). The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film. University of Texas Press. p. 265. ISBN 0292713452.
  123. ^ Raymond Aron (2000). The Century of Total War. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0861711734.
  124. ^ Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama (1954). The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect. Doubleday. p. 379.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  125. ^ a b c d George Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli (2004). Authenticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home. Emmis Books. p. 256. ISBN 1578601487.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  126. ^ a b Michael Joachim Girard (2006). Essential Believing for the Christian Soul. Xulon Press. p. 324. ISBN 1597815969.
  127. ^ T. M. P. Mahadevan (1974). Philosophy: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy). Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras. p. 652.
  128. ^ Ernest Joseph Simmons (1973). Tolstoy. Routledge. p. 260. ISBN 071007395X.
  129. ^ Richard A. Bowell (2004). The Seven Steps Of Spiritual Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and Happiness. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. p. 199. ISBN 1857883446.
  130. ^ John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller (1992). Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 232. ISBN 0805804250.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  131. ^ a b c Timothy Tang (2007). Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness. iUniverse. p. 70. ISBN 9780595459414.
  132. ^ Tyler T. Roberts (1998). Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion. Princeton University Press. p. 256. ISBN 0691001278.
  133. ^ Lucy Costigan (2004). What Is the Meaning of Your Life: A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning. iUniverse. p. 124. ISBN 0595338801.
  134. ^ Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith (2007). Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care. Radcliffe Publishing. p. 188. ISBN 1846191815.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  135. ^ David L. Jeffrey (1992). A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0802836348.
  136. ^ Dana A. Williams (2005). "In the Light of Likeness-transformed": The Literary Art of Leon Forrest. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0814209947.
  137. ^ Jerry Z. Muller (1997). Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present. Princeton University Press. p. 464. ISBN 0691037116.
  138. ^ Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart (2002). Spirituality and Social Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. p. 256. ISBN 184310024X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  139. ^ Xinzhong Yao (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press. p. 362. ISBN 0521644305.
  140. ^ Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek (2001). Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity. SAGE. p. 272. ISBN 0761970495.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  141. ^ Anil Goonewardene (1994). Buddhist Scriptures. Harcourt Heinemann. p. 48. ISBN 0435303554.
  142. ^ a b Luc Ferry (2002). Man Made God: The Meaning of Life. University of Chicago Press. p. 172. ISBN 0226244849.
  143. ^ a b c Eric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace (2002). Powerful Leadership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life. FT Press. p. 225. ISBN 0130668362.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  144. ^ The Mutual-aid Approach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One Another. Haworth Press. 2004. ISBN 0789014629. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |name= ignored (help)
  145. ^ John Caunt (2002). Boost Your Self-Esteem. Kogan Page. ISBN 0749438711.
  146. ^ a b c d e f g h i j John Cook (2007). The Book of Positive Quotations. Fairview Press. p. 755. ISBN 1577491696.
  147. ^ Lee, Dong Yul (June 2000). "What Makes You Happy?: A Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures". Social Indicators Research. 50 (3): 351–362. doi:10.1023/A:1004647517069. ISSN 0303-8300. Retrieved 2007-07-26. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  148. ^ Social perspectives, ACM Digital Library
  149. ^ John Kultgen (1995). Autonomy and Intervention: Parentalism in the Caring Life. Oxford University Press US. p. 280. ISBN 0195085310.
  150. ^ a b Steve Chandler (2005). Reinventing Yourself: How to Become the Person You've Always Wanted to Be. Career Press. p. 224. ISBN 1564148173.
  151. ^ a b John G. West (2002). Celebrating Middle-Earth: The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization. Inkling Books. p. 108. ISBN 1587420120.
  152. ^ Rachel Madorsky (2003). Create Your Own Destiny!: Spiritual Path to Success. Avanty House. p. 296. ISBN 0970534949.
  153. ^ Douglas Adams. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. ISBN 0-330-25864-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |published= ignored (help)
  154. ^ Douglas Adams. Life, the Universe and Everything. ISBN 0-330-26738-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |published= ignored (help)
  155. ^ Douglas Adams (1 January 1980). The Restaurant at the End of the Universe. ISBN 0-345-39181-0.
  156. ^ Douglas Adams. So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish. ISBN 0-330-28700-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |published= ignored (help)
  157. ^ a b Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script
  158. ^ Terry Burnham (2005). Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471716952.
  159. ^ Yolanda Fernandez (2002). In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders. Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing. ISBN 1885473486.
  160. ^ Matt Lawrence (2004). Like a Splinter in Your Mind: The Philosophy Behind the Matrix Trilogy. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405125241.
  161. ^ a b c d e Pregnant Pauses: Charlie & Lucy
  162. ^ AllGreatQuotes: Charlie Brown Quotes
  163. ^ Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: That's the secret to life... replace one worry with another....
  164. ^ HamieNET.com [You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown] Happiness Lyrics
  165. ^ Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: Life is like an ice cream cone...you have to lick it one day at a time.
  166. ^ AllGreatQuotes: Lucy Van Pelt Quotes
  167. ^ Chekhov Quote:You ask "What is life?" That is the same as asking "What is a carrot?" A carrot is a carrot and we know nothing more.

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