Metafiction
Metafiction is a type of fiction that self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction. It is the literary term describing fictional writing that self-consciously and systematically draws attention to its status as an artifact in posing questions about the relationship between fiction and reality, usually, irony and self-reflection. It can be compared to presentational theatre, which does not let the audience forget it is viewing a play; metafiction does not let the reader forget he or she is reading a fictional work.
Metafiction is primarily associated with Modernist and Postmodernist literature, but is found at least as early as the 9th century One Thousand and One Nights and Chaucer's 14th century Canterbury Tales. Cervantes's Don Quixote is a metafictional novel. In the 1950s, several French novelists published works whose styles were collectively dubbed "nouveau roman". These "new novels" were characterized by their bending of genre and style and often included elements of metafiction. It became prominent in the 1960s, with authors and works such as John Barth's Lost in the Funhouse, Robert Coover's The Babysitter and The Magic Poker, Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse Five, and William H. Gass's Willie Master's Lonesome Wife.
Various devices of metafiction
Some common metafictive devices in novels include:
- A novel about a writer creating a story (e.g. Misery , Secret Window, Secret Garden, At Swim-Two-Birds, Atonement, The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time, The Counterfeiters, The World According to Garp, Barton Fink, Adaptation., and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man).
- A novel about a reader reading a novel (e.g. Neverending Story, If On a Winter's Night a Traveler
- A novel or other work of fiction within the novel (e.g. "The Laughing Man", The Crying of Lot 49, Sophie's World, The Princess Bride).
- A story addressing the specific conventions of story, such as title, paragraphing or plots. (e.g. Lost in the Funhouse and On with the Story by John Barth, Drawers & Booths by Ara 13).
- A novel where the narrator intentionally exposes him or herself as an author creating the story being read (e.g. The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, Mister B. Gone, The Unbearable Lightness of Being).
- A novel in which the book itself seeks interaction with the reader and asks the reader to stroke the pages of the book to see the book itself as a "living entity" (e.g., House of Leaves by Mark Z. Danielewski or Reflections in a Prism by David Lempert).
- A non-linear novel, which can be read in any order other than from beginning to end (e.g. The Unfortunates by B. S. Johnson, Rayuela by Julio Cortázar, Voice of the Fire by Alan Moore, Finnegans Wake by James Joyce).
- Narrative footnotes, which continue the story while commenting on it (e.g. Pale Fire, House of Leaves, Infinite Jest by David Foster Wallace, Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell by Susanna Clarke, From Hell by Alan Moore, Cable & Deadpool by Fabian Nicieza, "An Abundance of Katherines" by John Green and the Discworld novels by Terry Prachett).
- A novel wherein the author (not merely the narrator) is a character (e.g.The Dark Tower, A Series of Unfortunate Events, Life of Pi, Everything Is Illuminated, The People of Paper, Breakfast of Champions, Slaughterhouse Five , Money, Time and Again, The Dark Tower VI: Song of Susannah, Lanark, JPod, The Monkey Wrench Gang, and Even Cowgirls Get the Blues).
- A parallel novel which has the same setting and time period as a previous work, and many of the same characters, but is told from a different perspective (e.g. The Alexandria Quartet by Lawrence Durrell, Wicked (novel) by Gregory Maguire, The Wind Done Gone by Alice Randall, Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys,Till We Have Faces by C. S. Lewis, Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard, Grendel by John Gardner, Foe by J.M. Coetzee, Ender's Shadow by Orson Scott Card, Only Revolutions by Mark Z. Danielewski).
The play "The King in Yellow"'s existence as a work of fiction is referred to in the real-world short story collection named The King in Yellow. Metafictive devices in other media include Al Capp's Fearless Fosdick in Li'l Abner, the Tales of the Black Freighter in Watchmen, or the Itchy and Scratchy Show within The Simpsons, and the computer game "Myst" in which the player represents a person who has found a book named Myst and been transported inside it.
The theme of metafiction may be central to the work, as in The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759) or as in Herman Melville's The Confidence Man, Chapter XIV, in which the narrator talks about the literary devices used in the other chapters. But as a literary device, metafiction has become a frequent feature of postmodernist literature. Examples such as If On a Winter's Night a Traveler by Italo Calvino, "a novel about a person reading a novel" is an exercise in metafiction. Contemporary author Paul Auster has made metafiction the central focus of his writing and is probably the best known active novelist specialising in the genre. Often metafiction figures for only a moment in a story, as when "Roger" makes a brief appearance in Roger Zelazny's Chronicles of Amber.
It can be used in multiple ways within one work. For example, novelist Tim O'Brien, a Vietnam War veteran, writes in his short story collection The Things They Carried about a character named "Tim O'Brien" and his war experiences in Vietnam. Tim O'Brien, as the narrator, comments on the fictionality of some of the war stories, commenting on the "truth" behind the story, though all of it is characterized as fiction. In the story chapter How to Tell a True War Story, O'Brien comments on the difficulty of capturing the truth while telling a war story.
According to Paul de Man all fiction is metafictional, since all works of literature are concerned with language and literature itself.[citation needed] Some elements of metafiction are similar to devices used in metafilm techniques.
Movies and Television
- Charlie Kaufman is a screenwriter who often uses this narrative technique. In the film Adaptation, his character Charlie Kaufman (Nicolas Cage) tortuously attempts to write a screenplay adapted from the book The Orchid Thief, only to come to understand that such an adaptation is impossible. Many plot devices used throughout the film are uttered by Kaufman as he develops a screenplay, and the screenplay, which eventually results in Adaptation itself.
- Tristram Shandy: A Cock and Bull Story is a 2006 British comedy directed by Michael Winterbottom. It is a film-within-a-film based on a book-within-a-book, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman. It features actors Steve Coogan and Rob Brydon playing themselves as egotistical actors during the making in a screen adaptation of Laurence Sterne's 18th century novel Tristram Shandy, which is a fictional account of the narrator's attempt at writing an autobiography. Gillian Anderson and Keeley Hawes also play themselves in addition to their Tristram Shandy roles.
- A movie in which a character reads a fictional story (e.g. The Princess Bride, Donnie Darko, Disney Channel's Life is Ruff, "Bedtime Stories").
- A movie or television show in which a character begins humming, whistling, or listening to (on a radio, etc), the show or movie's theme song (e.g. the final scene of "Homer's Triple Bypass", from The Simpsons, or when Sam Carter hums the theme from Stargate SG-1 during the episode "Chimera", or the second Collector from Demon Knight or when Mr. Incredible whistles theme music from The Incredibles).
- Directly referencing another work that internally references the first work. (e.g. Weird Al Yankovic appearing on The Simpsons, when he himself sings songs that reference The Simpsons).
- Characters who do things because those actions are what they would expect from characters in a story. (e.g. Scream, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, The Last Unicorn).
- Characters who express awareness that they are in a work of fiction (e.g. Stranger than Fiction, "The Great Good Thing", Puckoon, Spaceballs: the Movie, Deadpool, Illuminatus!, Uso Justo, 1/0. "Bob and George").
- Characters in a film or a television series who mention and/or refer to the actors or actresses that portray themselves (e.g. Beatrice "Betty" Pengson from I Love Betty La Fea; Bea Alonzo, who played the role of the protagonist, also played herself as a Ecomoda model; coincidentally in the show, Betty wants to meet Bea Alonzo in person, an act of self-reference.)
- A real pre-existing piece of fiction X, being used within a new piece of fiction Y, to lend an air of verisimilitude to fiction Y, e.g. A Nightmare on Elm Street is discussed extensively in Wes Craven's New Nightmare, while actors from the former star as "themselves"; likewise are The 1001 Nights put to use within If On a Winter's Night a Traveler.
- A story where the author is not a character, but interacts with the characters. (e.g. She-Hulk, Animal Man, Betty Boop, Daffy Duck in Duck Amuck, Breakfast of Champions, Excel Saga TV Show).
- A story within which the very story itself (or a story based on it) is a work of fiction (e.g. Stargate SG-1's Wormhole X-Treme! or Supernatural's Supernatural novels.)
See also
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Bibliography
- Hutcheon, Linda, Narcissistic Narrative. The Metafictional Paradox, Routledge 1984, ISBN 0-415-06567-4
- Waugh, Patricia, Metafiction. The Theory and Practice of Self-conscious Fiction, Routledge 1988, ISBN 0-415-03006-4