Jump to content

Blood type

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 0nullbinary0 (talk | contribs) at 15:29, 16 September 2009 (→‎Cultural beliefs and pseudoscience: citation needed for alleged scientific rejection). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Blood type (or blood group) is determined, in part, by the ABO blood group antigens present on red blood cells.

A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system, and some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens, that stem from one allele (or very closely linked genes), collectively form a blood group system.[1]

Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 30 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT).[2]

Many pregnant women carry a fetus with a different blood type from their own, and the mother can form antibodies against fetal RBCs. Sometimes these maternal antibodies are IgG, a small immunoglobulin, which can cross the placenta and cause hemolysis of fetal RBCs, which in turn can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn, an illness of low fetal blood counts which ranges from mild to severe.[3]

Serology

If an individual is exposed to a blood group antigen that is not recognized as self, the immune system will produce antibodies that can specifically bind to that particular blood group antigen, and an immunological memory against that antigen is formed. The individual will have become sensitized to that blood group antigen. These antibodies can bind to antigens on the surface of transfused red blood cells (or other tissue cells), often leading to destruction of the cells by recruitment of other components of the immune system. When IgM antibodies bind to the transfused cells, the transfused cells can clump. It is vital that compatible blood is selected for transfusions and that compatible tissue is selected for organ transplantation. Transfusion reactions involving minor antigens or weak antibodies may lead to minor problems. However, more serious incompatibilities can lead to a more vigorous immune response with massive RBC destruction, low blood pressure, and even death.

ABO and Rh blood grouping

Agglutination of blood cells tested with antibodies for determination of blood type in the laboratory. The discovery of this type of agglutination was an important medical breakthrough.[4]

Anti-A and Anti-B, the common IgM antibodies to the RBC surface antigens of the ABO blood group system, are sometimes described as being "naturally occurring"; however, this is a misnomer, because these antibodies are formed in infancy by sensitization in the same way as other antibodies. The theory that explains how these antibodies are developed states that antigens similar to the A and B antigens occur in nature, including in food, plants, and bacteria. After birth an infant's gut becomes colonized with normal flora that express these A-like and B-like antigens, causing the immune system to make antibodies to those antigens that the red blood cells do not possess. People who are blood type A will have Anti-B antibodies, blood type B will have Anti-A antibodies, blood type O will have both Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies, and blood type AB will have neither. Because of these so called "naturally occurring" and expected antibodies, it is important to correctly determine a patient's blood type prior to transfusion of any blood component. These naturally occurring antibodies are of the IgM class, which have the capability of agglutinating (clumping) and damaging red blood cells within the blood vessels, possibly leading to death. It is not necessary to determine any other blood groups because almost all other red blood cell antibodies can develop only through active immunization, which can occur only through either previous blood transfusion or pregnancy. A test called the Antibody Screen is always performed on patients who may require red blood cell transfusion, and this test will detect most clinically significant red blood cell antibodies.

The RhD antigen is also important in determining a person's blood type. The terms "positive" or "negative" refer to either the presence or absence of the RhD antigen irrespective of the presence or absence of the other antigens of the Rhesus system. Anti-RhD is not usually a naturally occurring antibody as the Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies are. Cross-matching for the RhD antigen is extremely important, because the RhD antigen is immunogenic, meaning that a person who is RhD negative is very likely to make Anti-RhD when exposed to the RhD antigen (perhaps through either transfusion or pregnancy). Once an individual is sensitized to RhD antigens, his or her blood will contain RhD IgG antibodies, which can bind to RhD positive RBCs and may cross the placenta. [5].

Blood group systems

A total of 30 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT).[2] A complete blood type would describe a full set of 30 substances on the surface of RBCs, and an individual's blood type is one of the many possible combinations of blood-group antigens. Across the 30 blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been found,[6] but many of these are very rare or are mainly found in certain ethnic groups.

Almost always, an individual has the same blood group for life, but very rarely an individual's blood type changes through addition or suppression of an antigen in infection, malignancy, or autoimmune disease.[7][8][9][10] An example of this rare phenomenon is the case of Demi-Lee Brennan, an Australian citizen, whose blood group changed after a liver transplant.[11][12] Another more common cause in blood-type change is a bone marrow transplant. Bone-marrow transplants are performed for many leukemias and lymphomas, among other diseases. If a person receives bone marrow from someone who is a different ABO type (eg, a type A patient receives a type O bone marrow), the patient's blood type will eventually convert to the donor's type.

Some blood types are associated with inheritance of other diseases; for example, the Kell antigen is sometimes associated with McLeod syndrome.[13] Certain blood types may affect susceptibility to infections, an example being the resistance to specific malaria species seen in individuals lacking the Duffy antigen.[14] The Duffy antigen, presumably as a result of natural selection, is less common in ethnic groups from areas with a high incidence of malaria.[15]

ABO blood group system

ABO blood group system - diagram showing the carbohydrate chains that determine the ABO blood group
Main article: ABO blood group system

The ABO system is the most important blood-group system in human-blood transfusion. The associated anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies are usually "Immunoglobulin M", abbreviated IgM, antibodies. ABO IgM antibodies are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances such as food, bacteria, and viruses. The "O" in ABO is often called "0" (zero/null) in other languages.[16]

Phenotype Genotype
A AA or AO
B BB or BO
AB AB
O OO

Rhesus blood group system

Main article: Rhesus blood group system

The Rhesus system is the second most significant blood-group system in human-blood transfusion. The most significant Rhesus antigen is the RhD antigen because it is the most immunogenic of the five main rhesus antigens. It is common for RhD-negative individuals not to have any anti-RhD IgG or IgM antibodies, because anti-RhD antibodies are not usually produced by sensitization against environmental substances. However, RhD-negative individuals can produce IgG anti-RhD antibodies following a sensitizing event: possibly a fetomaternal transfusion of blood from a fetus in pregnancy or occasionally a blood transfusion with RhD positive RBCs.[17] Rh disease can develop in these cases.[18]

ABO and Rh distribution by country

ABO and Rh blood type distribution by nation (population averages)
Country O+ A+ B+ AB+  O-  A-  B- AB-
Australia[19] 40% 31% 8% 2% 9% 7% 2% 1%
Austria[20] 30% 33% 12% 6% 7% 8% 3% 1%
Belgium[21] 38% 34% 8.5% 4.1% 7% 6% 1.5% 0.8%
Brazil[22] 36% 34% 8% 2.5% 9% 8% 2% 0.5%
Canada[23] 39% 36% 7.6% 2.5% 7% 6% 1.4% 0.5%
Denmark[24] 35% 37% 8% 4% 6% 7% 2% 1%
Estonia[25] 30% 31% 20% 6% 4.5% 4.5% 3% 1%
Finland[26] 27% 38% 15% 7% 4% 6% 2% 1%
France[27] 36% 37% 9% 3% 6% 7% 1% 1%
Germany[28] 35% 37% 9% 4% 6% 6% 2% 1%
Hong Kong SAR[29] 40% 26% 27% 7% 0.31% 0.19% 0.14% 0.05%
Iceland[30] 47.6% 26.4% 9.3% 1.6% 8.4% 4.6% 1.7% 0.4%
India[31] 36.5% 22.1% 30.9% 6.4% 2.0% 0.8% 1.1% 0.2%
Ireland[32] 47% 26% 9% 2% 8% 5% 2% 1%
Israel[33] 32% 34% 17% 7% 3% 4% 2% 1%
New Zealand[34] 38% 32% 9% 3% 9% 6% 2% 1%
Norway[35] 34% 42.5% 6.8% 3.4% 6% 7.5% 1.2% 0.6%
Poland[36] 31% 32% 15% 7% 6% 6% 2% 1%
Portugal[37] 36.2% 39.8% 6.6% 2.9% 6.0% 6.6% 1.1% 0.5%
Saudi Arabia[38] 48% 24% 17% 4% 4% 2% 1% 0.23%
Spain[39] 36% 34% 8% 2.5% 9% 8% 2% 0.5%
Sweden[40] 32% 37% 10% 5% 6% 7% 2% 1%
Netherlands[41] 39.5% 35% 6.7% 2.5% 7.5% 7% 1.3% 0.5%
Turkey[42] 29.8% 37.8% 14.2% 7.2% 3.9% 4.7% 1.6% 0.8%
United Kingdom[43] 37% 35% 8% 3% 7% 7% 2% 1%
United States[44] 37.4% 35.7% 8.5% 3.4% 6.6% 6.3% 1.5% 0.6%
.
--- Mean --- 36.5% 33.4% 11.9% 4.2% 6.1% 5.7% 1.7% 0.7%
Std dev 5.3% 5.0% 6.2% 1.9% 2.2% 2.1% 0.6% 0.3%

Blood group B has its highest frequency in Northern India and neighboring Central Asia, and its incidence diminishes both towards the west and the east, falling to single digit percentages in Spain.[46][47] It is believed to have been entirely absent from Native American and Australian Aboriginal populations prior to the arrival of Europeans in those areas.[47][48]

Blood group A is associated with high frequencies in Europe, especially in Scandinavia and Central Europe, although its highest frequencies occur in some Australian Aborigine populations and the Blackfoot Indians of Montana.[49][50]

Other blood group systems

Main article: Human blood group systems

The International Society of Blood Transfusion currently recognizes 30 blood-group systems (including the ABO and Rh systems).[2] Thus, in addition to the ABO antigens and Rhesus antigens, many other antigens are expressed on the RBC surface membrane. For example, an individual can be AB RhD positive, and at the same time M and N positive (MNS system), K positive (Kell system), Lea or Leb negative (Lewis system), and so on, being positive or negative for each blood group system antigen. Many of the blood group systems were named after the patients in whom the corresponding antibodies were initially encountered.

Clinical significance

Blood transfusion

Main article: Blood transfusion

Transfusion medicine is a specialized branch of hematology that is concerned with the study of blood groups, along with the work of a blood bank to provide a transfusion service for blood and other blood products. Across the world, blood products must be prescribed by a medical doctor (licensed physician or surgeon) in a similar way as medicines. In the USA, blood products are tightly regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

Main symptoms of acute hemolytic reaction due to blood type mismatch.[51][52]

Much of the routine work of a blood bank involves testing blood from both donors and recipients to ensure that every individual recipient is given blood that is compatible and is as safe as possible. If a unit of incompatible blood is transfused between a donor and recipient, a severe acute hemolytic reaction with hemolysis (RBC destruction), renal failure and shock is likely to occur, and death is a possibility. Antibodies can be highly active and can attack RBCs and bind components of the complement system to cause massive hemolysis of the transfused blood.

Patients should ideally receive their own blood or type-specific blood products to minimize the chance of a transfusion reaction. Risks can be further reduced by cross-matching blood, but this may be skipped when blood is required for an emergency. Cross-matching involves mixing a sample of the recipient's serum with a sample of the donor's red blood cells and checking if the mixture agglutinates, or forms clumps. If agglutination is not obvious by direct vision, blood bank technicians usually check for agglutination with a microscope. If agglutination occurs, that particular donor's blood cannot be transfused to that particular recipient. In a blood bank it is vital that all blood specimens are correctly identified, so labeling has been standardized using a barcode system known as ISBT 128.

The blood group may be included on identification tags or on tattoos worn by military personnel, in case they should need an emergency blood transfusion. Frontline German Waffen-SS had blood group tattoos during World War II.

Rare blood types can cause supply problems for blood banks and hospitals. For example Duffy-negative blood occurs much more frequently in people of African origin,[53] and the rarity of this blood type in the rest of the population can result in a shortage of Duffy-negative blood for patients of African ethnicity. Similarly for RhD negative people, there is a risk associated with travelling to parts of the world where supplies of RhD negative blood are rare, particularly East Asia, where blood services may endeavor to encourage Westerners to donate blood.[54]

Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)

Main article: Hemolytic disease of the newborn

A pregnant woman can make IgG blood group antibodies if her fetus has a blood group antigen that she does not have. This can happen if some of the fetus' blood cells pass into the mother's blood circulation (e.g. a small fetomaternal hemorrhage at the time of childbirth or obstetric intervention), or sometimes after a therapeutic blood transfusion. This can cause Rh disease or other forms of hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) in the current pregnancy and/or subsequent pregnancies. If a pregnant woman is known to have anti-RhD antibodies, the RhD blood type of a fetus can be tested by analysis of fetal DNA in maternal plasma to assess the risk to the fetus of Rh disease.[55] One of the major advances of twentieth century medicine was to prevent this disease by stopping the formation of Anti-RhD antibodies by RhD negative mothers with an injectable medication called Rho(D) immune globulin.[56][57] Antibodies associated with some blood groups can cause severe HDN, others can only cause mild HDN and others are not known to cause HDN.[3]

Compatibility

Blood products

In order to provide maximum benefit from each blood donation and to extend shelf-life, blood banks fractionate some whole blood into several products. The most common of these products are packed RBCs, plasma, platelets, cryoprecipitate, and fresh frozen plasma (FFP). FFP is quick-frozen to retain the labile clotting factors V and VIII, which are usually administered to patients who have a potentially fatal clotting problem caused by a condition such as advanced liver disease, overdose of anticoagulant, or disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).

Units of packed red cells are made by removing as much of the plasma as possible from whole blood units.

Clotting factors synthesized by modern recombinant methods are now in routine clinical use for hemophilia, as the risks of infection transmission that occur with pooled blood products are avoided.

Red blood cell compatibility

  • Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but can donate blood only to another type AB individual.
  • Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals with type A or AB.
  • Blood group B individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen. Therefore, a group B individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals with type B or AB.
  • Blood group O (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, but their blood serum contains IgM anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies against the A and B blood group antigens. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (ie A, B, O or AB). If anyone needs a blood transfusion in a dire emergency, and if the time taken to process the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O Negative blood can be issued.
RBC Compatibility chart
In addition to donating to the same blood group; type O blood donors can give to A, B and AB; blood donors of types A and B can give to AB.
Red blood cell compatibility table[58][59]
Recipient[1] Donor[1]
O− O+ A− A+ B− B+ AB− AB+
O− checkY
O+ checkY checkY
A− checkY checkY
A+ checkY checkY checkY checkY
B− checkY checkY
B+ checkY checkY checkY checkY
AB− checkY checkY checkY checkY
AB+ checkY checkY checkY checkY checkY checkY checkY checkY

Table note
1. Assumes absence of atypical antibodies that would cause an incompatibility between donor and recipient blood, as is usual for blood selected by cross matching.

A RhD-negative patient who does not have any anti-RhD antibodies (never being previously sensitized to RhD-positive RBCs) can receive a transfusion of RhD-positive blood once, but this would cause sensitization to the RhD antigen, and a female patient would become at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn. If an RhD-negative patient has developed anti-RhD antibodies, a subsequent exposure to RhD-positive blood would lead to a potentially dangerous transfusion reaction. RhD-positive blood should never be given to RhD-negative women of child bearing age or to patients with RhD antibodies, so blood banks must conserve Rhesus-negative blood for these patients. In extreme circumstances, such as for a major bleed when stocks of RhD-negative blood units are very low at the blood bank, RhD-positive blood might be given to RhD-negative females above child-bearing age or to Rh-negative males, providing that they did not have anti-RhD antibodies, to conserve RhD-negative blood stock in the blood bank. The converse is not true; RhD-positive patients do not react to RhD negative blood.

Plasma compatibility

File:Plasma-donation.svg
Plasma compatibility chart
In addition to donating to the same blood group; plasma from type AB can be given to A, B and O; plasma from types A and B can be given to O.

Recipients can receive plasma of the same blood group, but otherwise the donor-recipient compatibility for blood plasma is the converse of that of RBCs: plasma extracted from type AB blood can be transfused to individuals of any blood group; individuals of blood group O can receive plasma from any blood group; and type O plasma can be used only by type O recipients.

Plasma compatibility table
Recipient Donor[1]
O A B AB
O checkY checkY checkY checkY
A checkY checkY
B checkY checkY
AB checkY

Table note
1. Assumes absence of strong atypical antibodies in donor plasma

Rhesus D antibodies are uncommon, so generally neither RhD negative nor RhD positive blood contain anti-RhD antibodies. If a potential donor is found to have anti-RhD antibodies or any strong atypical blood group antibody by antibody screening in the blood bank, they would not be accepted as a donor (or in some blood banks the blood would be drawn but the product would need to be appropriately labeled); therefore, donor blood plasma issued by a blood bank can be selected to be free of RhD antibodies and free of other atypical antibodies, and such donor plasma issued from a blood bank would be suitable for a recipient who may be RhD positive or RhD negative, as long as blood plasma and the recipient are ABO compatible.

Universal donors and universal recipients

With regard to transfusions of whole blood or packed red blood cells, individuals with type O negative blood are often called universal donors, and those with type AB positive blood are called universal recipients; however, these terms are only generally true with respect to possible reactions of the recipient's anti-A and anti-B antibodies to transfused red blood cells, and also possible sensitization to RhD antigens. Exceptions include individuals with hh antigen system (also known as the Bombay blood group) who can only receive blood safely from other hh donors, because they form antibodies against the H substance.[60][61]

Blood donors with particularly strong anti-A, anti-B or any atypical blood group antibody are excluded from blood donation. The possible reactions of anti-A and anti-B antibodies present in the transfused blood to the recipients RBCs need not be considered, because a relatively small volume of plasma containing antibodies is transfused.

By way of example; considering the transfusion of O RhD negative blood (universal donor blood) into a recipient of blood group A RhD positive, an immune reaction between the recipient's anti-B antibodies and the transfused RBCs is not anticipated. However, the relatively small amount of plasma in the transfused blood contains anti-A antibodies, which could react with the A antigens on the surface of the recipients RBCs, but a significant reaction is unlikely because of the dilution factors. Rhesus D sensitization is not anticipated.

Additionally, red blood cell surface antigens other than A, B and Rh D, might cause adverse reactions and sensitization, if they can bind to the corresponding antibodies to generate an immune response. Transfusions are further complicated because platelets and white blood cells (WBCs) have their own systems of surface antigens, and sensitization to platelet or WBC antigens can occur as a result of transfusion.

With regard to transfusions of plasma, this situation is reversed. Type O plasma, containing both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, can only be given to O recipients. The antibodies will attack the antigens on any other blood type. Conversely, AB plasma can be given to patients of any ABO blood group due to not containing any anti-A or anti-B antibodies.

Conversion

In April 2007 a method was discovered to convert blood types A, B, and AB to O, using enzymes. This method is still experimental and the resulting blood has yet to undergo human trials.[62][63] The method specifically removes or converts antigens on the red blood cells, so other antigens and antibodies would remain. This does not help plasma compatibility, but that is a lesser concern since plasma has much more limited clinical utility in transfusion and is much easier to preserve.

History

The two most significant blood group systems were discovered during early experiments with blood transfusion: the ABO group in 1901[64] and the Rhesus group in 1937.[65] Development of the Coombs test in 1945,[66] the advent of transfusion medicine, and the understanding of hemolytic disease of the newborn led to discovery of more blood groups, and now 30 human blood group systems are recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT),[2] and across the 30 blood groups, over 600 different blood group antigens have been found,[6]; many of these are very rare or are mainly found in certain ethnic groups. Blood types have been used in forensic science and in paternity testing, but both of these uses are being replaced by genetic fingerprinting, which provides greater certainty [67].

Cultural beliefs and pseudoscience

The Japanese blood type theory of personality is a popular belief that a person's ABO blood type is predictive of their personality, character, and compatibility with others. This belief is also widespread in South Korea.[68] Deriving from ideas of historical scientific racism, the theory reached Japan in a 1927 psychologist's report, and the militarist government of the time commissioned a study aimed at breeding better soldiers.[68] The fad faded in the 1930s due to its unscientific basis. The theory has long since been rejected by the scientists[citation needed], but it was revived in the 1970s by Masahiko Nomi, a broadcaster who had no medical background.[68] Western self-help books authors have exploited for profit the lay public's lack of knowledge about serotypes to make unsubstantiated pseudoscientific claims that people of different blood types would benefit from different diets.[69]

References

  1. ^ Maton, Anthea (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b c d "Table of blood group systems". International Society of Blood Transfusion. 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-12. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ^ a b E.A. Letsky (2000). "Chapter 12: Rhesus and other haemolytic diseases". Antenatal & neonatal screening (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-262827-7. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ D'Adamo, Peter J (2002). Complete blood type encyclopedia: the A-Z reference guide for the blood type. Riverhead Books. ISBN 1573229202. Retrieved 2009-09-10. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Talaro, Kathleen P. (2005). Foundations in microbiology (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 510–1. ISBN 0-07-111203-0.
  6. ^ a b "American Red Cross Blood Services, New England Region, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont". American Red Cross Blood Services - New England Region. 2001. Retrieved 2008-07-15. there are more than 600 known antigens besides A and B that characterize the proteins found on a person's red cells
  7. ^ Dean, Laura. "The ABO blood group". Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens. online: NCBI. A number of illnesses may alter a person's ABO phenotype {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |origdate= and |origmonth= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ Stayboldt C, Rearden A, Lane T (1987). "B antigen acquired by normal A1 red cells exposed to a patient's serum". Transfusion. 27 (1): 41–4. doi:10.1046/j.1537-2995.1987.27187121471.x. PMID 3810822.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Matsushita S, Imamura T, Mizuta T, Hanada M (1983). "Acquired B antigen and polyagglutination in a patient with gastric cancer". Jpn J Surg. 13 (6): 540–2. doi:10.1007/BF02469500. PMID 6672386.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Kremer Hovinga I, Koopmans M, de Heer E, Bruijn J, Bajema I (2007). "Change in blood group in systemic lupus erythematosus". Lancet. 369 (9557): 186–7, author reply 187. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60099-3. PMID 17240276.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Demi-Lee Brennan has changed blood types and immune system Kate Sikora, The Daily Telegraph, January 25, 2008
  12. ^ Aust doctors hail teen's transplant 'miracle' Sean Rubinsztein-Dunlop, ABC News (Australia), January 24, 2008
  13. ^ Allen FH Jr, Krabbe SM, Corcoran PA. A new phenotype (McLeod) in the Kell blood-group system. Vox Sang. 1961 Sep;6:555-60. PMID 13477267
  14. ^ Miller LH, Mason SJ, Clyde DF, McGinniss MH. "The resistance factor to Plasmodium vivax in blacks. The Duffy-blood-group genotype, FyFy." N Engl J Med. 1976 Aug 5;295(6):302-4 PMID 778616
  15. ^ Kwiatkowski, DP (2005). "How Malaria Has Affected the Human Genome and What Human Genetics Can Teach Us about Malaria". Am J Hum Genet. 77 (2): 171–192. doi:10.1086/432519. PMID 16001361. PMC 1224522. Retrieved 2006-11-16. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)"The different geographic distributions of α thalassemia, G6PD deficiency, ovalocytosis, and the Duffy-negative blood group are further examples of the general principle that different populations have evolved different genetic variants to protect against malaria".
  16. ^ "Your blood – a textbook about blood and blood donation" (PDF). p. 63. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
  17. ^ Talaro, Kathleen P. (2005). Foundations in microbiology (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 510–1. ISBN 0-07-111203-0.
  18. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18591322?ordinalpos=3&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DefaultReportPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum
  19. ^ Blood Types - What Are They?, Australian Red Cross
  20. ^ Austrian Red Cross - Blood Donor Information
  21. ^ Rode Kruis Wielsbeke - Blood Donor information material
  22. ^ Tipos Sanguíneos
  23. ^ Types & Rh System, Canadian Blood Services
  24. ^ Frequency of major blood groups in the Danish population.
  25. ^ Veregruppide esinemissagedus Eestis
  26. ^ Suomalaisten veriryhmäjakauma
  27. ^ "Les groupes sanguins (système ABO)". Centre Hospitalier Princesse GRACE - Monaco (in French). C.H.P.G. MONACO. 2005. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
  28. ^ de:Blutgruppe#Häufigkeit der Blutgruppen
  29. ^ Blood Donation, Hong Kong Red Cross
  30. ^ Blóðflokkar
  31. ^ Indian Journal for the Practising Doctor
  32. ^ Irish Blood Transfusion Service/Irish Blood Group Type Frequency Distribution
  33. ^ The national rescue service in Israel
  34. ^ What are Blood Groups? - NZ Blood
  35. ^ Norwegian Blood Donor Organization
  36. ^ Regionalne Centrum Krwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa we Wroclawiu
  37. ^ Portuguese Blood Institute (assuming Rh and AB antigens are independent)
  38. ^ Fequency of ABO blood groups in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia
  39. ^ Federación Nacional de Donantes de Sangre/La sangre/Grupos
  40. ^ Frequency of major blood groups in the Swedish population.
  41. ^ "Voorraad Erytrocytenconcentraten Bij Sanquin" (in Dutch). Retrieved 2009-03-27.
  42. ^ Turkey Blood Group Site.
  43. ^ Frequency of major blood groups in the UK.
  44. ^ Blood Types in the U.S.
  45. ^ RACIAL & ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION of ABO BLOOD TYPES, BLOODBOOK.COM
  46. ^ Blood Transfusion Division, United States Army Medical Research Laboratory (1971), Selected contributions to the literature of blood groups and immunology. 1971 v. 4, United States Army Medical Research Laboratory, Fort Knox, Kentucky, ... In northern India, in Southern and Central China and in the neighboring Central Asiatic areas, we find the highest known frequencies of B. If we leave this center, the frequency of the B gene decreases almost everywhere ...
  47. ^ a b Encyclopaedia Britannica (2002), The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., ISBN 0852297874, ... The maximum frequency of the B gene occurs in Central Asia and northern India. The B gene was probably absent from American Indians and Australian Aborigines before racial admixture occurred with the coming of the white man ...
  48. ^ Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember (1973), Anthropology, Appleton-Century-Crofts, ... Blood type B is completely absent in most North and South American Indians ...
  49. ^ Laura Dean, MD (2005), Blood Groups an Red Cell Antigens, National Center for Biotechnology Information, United States Government, ISBN 1932811052, ... Type A is common in Central and Eastern Europe. In countries such as Austria, Denmark, Norway, and Switzerland, about 45-50% of the population have this blood type, whereas about 40% of Poles and Ukrainians do so. The highest frequencies are found in small, unrelated populations. For example, about 80% of the Blackfoot Indians of Montana have blood type A ...
  50. ^ Technical Monograph No. 2: The ABO Blood Group System and ABO Subgroups (PDF), Biotec, March 2005, ... The frequency of blood group A is quite high (25-55%) in Europe, especially in Scandinavia and parts of central Europe. High group A frequency is also found in the Aborigines of South Australia (up to 45%) and in certain American Indian tribes where the frequency reaches 35% ...
  51. ^ Possible Risks of Blood Product Transfusions from American Cancer Society. Last Medical Review: 03/08/2008. Last Revised: 01/13/2009
  52. ^ 7 ADVERSE REACTIONS TO TRANSFUSION Pathology Department at University of Michigan. Version July 2004, Revised 11/5/08
  53. ^ Nickel, RG (1999). "Determination of Duffy genotypes in three populations of African descent using PCR and sequence-specific oligonucleotides". Hum Immunol. 60 (8): 738–42. doi:10.1016/S0198-8859(99)00039-7. PMID 10439320. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  54. ^ Bruce, MG (2002). "BCF - Members - Chairman's Annual Report". The Blood Care Foundation. Retrieved 2008-07-15. As Rhesus Negative blood is rare amongst local nationals, this Agreement will be of particular value to Rhesus Negative expatriates and travellers {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  55. ^ Daniels G, Finning K, Martin P, Summers J (2006). "Fetal blood group genotyping: present and future". Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1075: 88–95. doi:10.1196/annals.1368.011. PMID 17108196.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ^ "Use of Anti-D Immunoglobulin for Rh Prophylaxis". Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2002. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  57. ^ "Pregnancy - routine anti-D prophylaxis for RhD-negative women". NICE. 2002. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  58. ^ "RBC compatibility table". American National Red Cross. 2006. Retrieved 2008-07-15. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  59. ^ Blood types and compatibility bloodbook.com
  60. ^ Fauci, Anthony S. (1998). Harrison's Principals of Internal Medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 719. ISBN 0-07-020291-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help))
  61. ^ Universal acceptor and donor groups
  62. ^ "Blood groups 'can be converted'". BBC News. 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-15. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  63. ^ Liu Q, Sulzenbacher G, Yuan H, Bennett E, Pietz G, Saunders K, Spence J, Nudelman E, Levery S, White T, Neveu J, Lane W, Bourne Y, Olsson M, Henrissat B, Clausen H (2007). "Bacterial glycosidases for the production of universal red blood cells". Nat Biotechnol. 25: 454. doi:10.1038/nbt1298. PMID 17401360.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  64. ^ Landsteiner K. Zur Kenntnis der antifermentativen, lytischen und agglutinierenden Wirkungen des Blutserums und der Lymphe. Zentralblatt Bakteriologie 1900;27:357-62.
  65. ^ Landsteiner K, Wiener AS. An agglutinable factor in human blood recognized by immune sera for rhesus blood. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1940;43:223-224.
  66. ^ Coombs RRA, Mourant AE, Race RR. A new test for the detection of weak and "incomplete" Rh agglutinins. Brit J Exp Path 1945;26:255-66.
  67. ^ http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1351151
  68. ^ a b c Associated Press (2005-05-06). "Myth about Japan blood types under attack". AOL Health. Retrieved 2007-12-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  69. ^ http://www.quackwatch.org/04ConsumerEducation/NegativeBR/d'adamo.html

Further reading

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blood_type&oldid=314356729"