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Imperialism

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For the computer game, see Imperialism (video game).

Imperialism, as defined by the dictionary of human geography, is “the creation and maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural and territorial relationship, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination.” Imperialism, in many ways, is described as a primarily western concept that employs “expansionist – capitalist – and latterly communist – systems."[1]

Imperialism is considered the control by one state of other territories. Through political or military means (direct imperialism), the imperial power may take over the government of a particular territory, or through economic processes (indirect imperialism), in which the concerned region is officially self-governing but linked to the imperial power by, often unequal, trade relations. Furthermore, the notion of cultural imperialism is indicated by “existing or traditional ways of life and ways of thinking [that] are subordinated to the culture of the imperialists.”[2]

The term imperialism commonly refers to a political or geographical domain such as the Ottoman Empire, the French Empire[3] the Russian Empire,[4] the Chinese Empire, or the British Empire,[5] etc., but the term can equally be applied to domains of knowledge, beliefs, values and expertise, such as the empires of Christianity (see Christendom)[6] or Islam (see Caliphate).[7] Imperialism is usually autocratic, and also sometimes monolithic[8][clarification needed] in character.


Overview

Imperialism is found in the ancient histories of the Assyrian Empire, Chinese Empire, Roman Empire, Greece, the Persian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire (see Ottoman wars in Europe), ancient Egypt, India, the Aztec empire, and a basic component to the conquests of Genghis Khan and other warlords. Although imperialist practices have existed for thousands of years, the term "Age of Imperialism" generally refers to the activities of nations such as Britain, Japan, and Germany in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, e.g. the "Scramble for Africa" and the "Open Door Policy" in China.

Scramble for Africa

The word itself is derived from the Latin verb imperare (to command) and the Roman concept of imperium, while the actual term 'Imperialism' was coined in the 16th century,[9] reflecting what are now seen as the imperial policies of Belgium, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Imperialism not only describes colonial, territorial policies, but also economic and/or military dominance and influence.

The ideas of imperialism put forward by historians John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson during 19th century European imperialism were influential. They rejected the notion that "imperialism" required formal, legal control by one government over another country. "In their view, historians have been mesmerized by formal empire and maps of the world with regions colored red. The bulk of British emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire. A key to the thought of Robinson and Gallagher is the idea of empire 'informally if possible and formally if necessary.'"[10]

Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. Founded the De Beers Mining Company and owned the British South Africa Company, which established Rhodesia for itself. He liked to "paint the map British red," and declared: "all of these stars ... these vast worlds that remain out of reach. If I could, I would annex other planets."[11]

The principles of imperialism are often deeply connected to the policies and practices of British Imperialism "during the last generation, and proceeds rather by diagnosis than by historical description.[12] The principles of imperialism are often deeply connected to the policies and practices of British Imperialism "during the last generation, and proceeds rather by diagnosis than by historical description.” British Imperialist strategy centred on the fundamental concept of terra nullius (Latin expression which stems from Roman law meaning ‘empty land’). The country of Australia serves as a case study in relation to British imperialism. British settlement and colonial rule of the island of Australia in the eighteenth century was premised on terra nullius, for it was seen as a land that was ‘empty’ of inhabitants. Despite British claims, an estimated 350000 indigenous peoples were already living in Australia in the era of British conquest. The indigenous population suffered through years of political, social, and territorial oppression, and it was only until the 1960’s the “indigenous Australians were able to vote in Australian elections.”[13]

Territories that have been, at one time or another, part of the British Empire

Although commonly used to imply forcible imposition of a government control by an outside country, especially in a new, unconnected territory, the term is sometimes also used to describe loose or indirect political or economic influence or control of weak states by more powerful ones.[14] If the dominant country's influence is felt in social and cultural circles, such as "foreign" music being popular with young people, it may be described as cultural imperialism.

Criticism

"Imperialism has been subject to moral censure by its critics, and thus the term is frequently used in international propaganda as a pejorative for expansionist and aggressive foreign policy."[14]

See also

References

  1. ^ Johnston, Ronald John. The dictionary of human geography: Edition 4. Wiley-Blackwell: 2000. page 375. [http://books.google.ca/books?id=0-GxowMfwlkC&pg=PT1&lpg=PT1&dq=dictionary+of+human+geography&source=bl&ots=4CyN9B1rhd&sig=E3KtX4B8fvNDgKV-YzJr0RhVqKI&hl=en&ei=yc7cSq6HD5DWsgO5jqWxCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=imperialism&f=false
  2. ^ Painter, J. & Jeffrey, A., 2009. Political Geography 2nd ed., Sage. pg. 170
  3. ^ http://i-cias.com/e.o/imperialism.htm Ottoman Empire, French Empire, Encyclopedia of the Orient
  4. ^ http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/empire/ The Empire that was Russia, Library of Congress
  5. ^ http://www.britishempire.co.uk/ The British Empire
  6. ^ http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3350 John B Cobb, Christianity and Empire,
  7. ^ http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/ Islam Empire of Faith
  8. ^ http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj93/rees.htm John Rees, Imperialism: globalisation, the state and war, International Socialism Journal 93, Winter 2001
  9. ^ Oxford English Dictionary online (subscription required
  10. ^ Louis, Wm. Roger. (1976) Imperialism page 4.
  11. ^ S. Gertrude Millin, Rhodes, London, 1933, p.138
  12. ^ Hobson, J. A. "Imperialism: a study." Cosimo, Inc., 2005. pg. V
  13. ^ Painter, J. & Jeffrey, A., 2009. Political Geography 2nd ed., Sage. pg. 169
  14. ^ a b "Imperialism." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2nd edition.

Further reading

  • Guy Ankerl, Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharatai, Chinese, and Western, Geneva, INU PRESS, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
  • Robert Bickers/Christian Henriot, New Frontiers: Imperialism's New Communities in East Asia, 1842-1953, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-7190-5604-7
  • Barbara Bush, Imperialism and Postcolonialism (History: Concepts,Theories and Practice), Longmans, 2006, ISBN 0582505836
  • John Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400-2000, Penguin Books, 2008, ISBN 0141010223
  • Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World, Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 0141007540
  • Michael Hardt and Toni Negri, Empire, Harvard University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-674-00671-2
  • E.J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875-1914, Abacus Books, 1989, ISBN 0349105987
  • E J Hobsbawm, On Empire: America, War, and Global Supremacy, Pantheon Books, 2008, ISBN 0375425373
  • J A Hobson, Imperialism: A Study, Cosimo Classics, 2005, ISBN 1596052503
  • Michael Hudson, Super Imperialism: The Origin and Fundamentals of U.S. World Dominance, Pluto Press, 2003, ISBN 0745319890
  • V I Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism, International Publishers, New York, 1997, ISBN 0717800989
  • Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, Vintage Books, 1998, ISBN 0099967502
  • Simon C Smith, British Imperialism 1750-1970, Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 052159930X
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