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Criticism of Judaism

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For theological views antagonistic toward Judaism, see Anti-Judaism. For persecution of Jews, see Antisemitism.
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Criticism of Judaism includes criticism of Judaism's religious texts, laws, and practices. Criticism of Judaism would include criticism of the consequences of Judaism's laws and practices. Some early criticism involved inter-faith polemics between Christianity and Judaism. Criticism during the middle ages took the form of the disputations. These in turn gave rise to the antisemitic canards. Areas along the spectrum of Jewish observance disagree with one another, and this constitutes an internal criticism. The liberal end of the spectrum of Jewish observance sees relatively little need for observance of religious law, while the more conservative end of that spectrum articulates an endorsement for Jewish law in the lives of Jews.

Rejection of concept of Chosen People

Main article: Jews as a chosen people

Many people, such as Baruch Spinoza,[1] Moses Mendelssohn,[2] and Mordecai Kaplan,[3] have criticized Judaism because its texts describe Jews as the Chosen People.[4] Secular and Christian critics have objected to what they perceive as an assertion of superiority in the concept of "chosen people."[5] However, most liberal branches of the Jewish faith interpret "chosen people" to mean that Jews have a special role to "preserve God's revelations"[6] and to "affirm our common humanity",[7] such as reflected in the policy statement of Reform Judaism that the role of chosen people means that Jews have a special responsibility to "cooperate with all men in the establishment of the kingdom of God, of universal brotherhood, Justice, truth and peace on earth." In Orthodox Judaism the concept of "Closeness" is not understood to be superiority, but has traditionally been perceived as the unique task God gave the Jewish people of bringing holiness into the physical world through Judaism and Torah, which will eventually result in the redemption of all humanity through the coming of Mashiach.[8]

Criticisms from Christianity

See also Christian-Jewish disputations

Christian authorities have criticized Judaism, particularly during formal debates called disputations, such as the Disputation of Barcelona in 1263 and the Disputation of Tortosa in 1413.

Failure to recognize messiahship relating to Jesus of Nazareth

See also: Supersessionism and Rejection of Jesus § Jewish rejection

Judaism has been criticized by Christians and Muslims for failing to recognize Jesus as the messiah.[9] Paul made this criticism in the New Testament (Rom 9:30–11:26).

Insults directed at Jesus

See also: Quotations about Jesus in the Talmud and Toledot Yeshu

Judaism has been criticized because the Talmud, the Tosefta, and the Toldoth Yeshu are claimed to refer to Jesus in an insulting manner, such as: stating that Jesus is condemned to hell and boiled in excrement;[10] stating that he was executed for sorcery; stating that his mother Mary was a whore or adulterer; and identifying Jesus by the the Hebrew name Yeshu[11] which, it is alleged, is not a short form of the name Yeshua, but rather an acrostic signifying "may his name and memory be blotted out".[12] However, many scholars of Judaism maintain that the person identified as Yeshu in the Talmud is not the Jesus of the Gospels.[13] In addition, the general trend in Judaism over the past two thousand years has been to treat Jesus with increasing sympathy.[14]

Criticism from Islam

A prominent place in the Qur'anic polemic against the Jews is given to the conception of the religion of Abraham. The Qur'an presents Muslims as neither Jews nor Christians but followers of Abraham who was in a physical sense the father of the Jews and the Arabs and lived before the revelation of Torah. In order to show that the religion practiced by the Jews is not the pure religion of Abraham, the Qur'an mentions the incident of worshiping of the calf, argues that Jews do not believe in part of the revelation given to them, and that their taking of usury shows their worldliness and disobedience of God. Furthermore, the Quran claim they attribute to God what he has not revealed. In his polemic against Judaism, Ibn Hazm provided a polemical list of what he considered "chronological and geographical inaccuracies and contradictions; theological impossibilities (anthropomorphic expressions, stories of fornication and whoredom, and the attributing of sins to prophets), as well as lack of reliable transmission (tawatur) of the text".[15][16]

Internal criticism

Main article: Criticism of Conservative Judaism

Conservative Judaism is criticized by some leaders of Orthodox Judaism for not properly following Halakha (Jewish religious law).[17] It is also criticized by some leaders of Reform Judaism for being at odds with the principles of its young adult members on issues such as intermarriage, patrilineal descent, and the ordination of lesbians and gay men—all issues that Conservative Judaism opposes and Reform Judaism supports.[18] (The Conservative movement has since moved in the direction of allowing for gay rabbis and the "celebration of same-sex commitment ceremonies."[19])

Violence

Judaism has been criticized because its religious texts allegedly endorse or glorify violence, including violence against innocent peoples. The battle of Jericho (Joshua 6:1–27),[20] the story of Amalekites (1 Sam 15:1–6),[21] the story of the Midianites (Numbers 31:1–18),[22] and the Purim festival[23] are cited as sources of violent attitudes that are allegedly endorsed by Judaism and its religious texts.[24]

Land ownership conflicts in Middle East

See also: Religious Zionism, Land of Israel, 1948 Palestinian exodus, and Masei § Instructions for taking the land

Critics claim that religious Zionism's precepts have led to land ownership conflicts and expulsion of peoples in the Middle East.[25] Specifically, some critics cite the Hebrew Bible's notion of a "Promised Land" (ha-Aretz ha-Muvtachat) - which promises to the Jews the "Land of Israel" (Eretz Israel) - as a factor in the settlement of the Middle East,[26] as described by one analyst: "Zionism aspires to restore the Biblical promised boundaries. It is a new manifestation of the ancient aspiration for the Land of Israel promised in the Bible."[27] Critics also claim that verses from the Hebrew Bible are used to provide justifcation and motivation for confiscation and expulsion, citing specificially Numbers 33:50–55:[28]

Discrimination against non-Jews

Judaism has been criticized because its religious laws contain several provisions that discriminate against non-Jews, such as the rule that there is no need to return lost property belonging to non-Jews, and the asymmetry in compensation rules following ox-goring incidents.[29] Some of Judaism's precepts have been criticized because they could be interpreted to mean that Jews should not violate the Sabbath in order to save non-Jews that are dying.[30] Some critics point to the fact that the Talmud includes the maxim "[non-Jews] are neither to be lifted out of a well nor hauled down into it."[31] Critics also cite the writings of Maimonides (1137-1204), an important Rabbinical commentator, who wrote "as for gentiles [non-Jews], the basic Talmudic principle is that their lives must not be saved, although it is also forbidden to murder them outright."[32]

However, religious authorities point out that those religious dicta must be interpreted within the context that they were created, and that non-Jews in that context were idolaters.[33] In addition, arguments against such discrimination were posited by leading rabbis starting in the middle ages, and the rules are no longer enforced.[34] All rabbinic authorities agree that the Sabbath should be violated to save any human life, including non-Jews.[35][36]

Women

See also: Jewish Feminism

Inequality

See also: Patriarchy and Women rabbis

Judaism has been criticized because some of its religious laws and religious texts are alleged to treat women with a status inferior to men, including exclusion from some rituals and ceremonies,[37] being rabbis or holding certain other positions of authority,[38] which sometimes leads women to feel helpless, powerless, and like outsiders.[39] Some critics blame Judaism and its religious texts for being the source of widespread patriarchal attitudes in the modern world.[40] Author Naomi Gaetz addresses the fact that some feminists blame the Judaism for being the source of many sexist beliefs, and quotes Tikva Frymer-Kensky "Israel was neither the creator of patriarchy, nor the worst perpetrator in the ancient world.…Nevertheless, we make a profound statement when we acknowledge that the Bible is patriarchal. We are brought to the realization that the Bible contains a fundamental moral flaw: it does not treat all humans as equals."[41] Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism generally provide women with privileges comparable to men.[citation needed]

Divorce and agunah

See also: Agunah

Orthodox Judaism has been criticized because its laws can result in women being trapped in marriages and for tolerating the status of agunah.[42] However, many Orthodox Jewish leaders, among them Rabbi Yekusiel Yehudah Halberstam in the post-Holocaust era and Rabbi Moses Feinstein in America, have been known to seek every halakhic leniency to allow agunot to remarry.

Niddah (menstruation laws)

See also: Niddah

Judaism has been criticized because the religious rules governing menstruation (generally known as niddah) are claimed to cause some women to view their bodies as damaged, and to cause some women to feel oppressed.[43] Tova Hartman wrote "The rules that govern religious women's bodies are often criticized as oppressive methods of domination".[44] However, one commentator noted that "Rabbinic commentary did not unilaterally focus on the menstruating woman as pariah. For every statement stressing defilement, danger, and impurity, exists a counter-statement emphasizing respect toward women, the holiness of sexual intimacy, and the incidental benefits of sexual regulation and restraint."[45]

Homosexuality

Main article: Homosexuality and Judaism

Judaism has been criticized because its religious texts condemn homosexual activity, and because some formulations, such as Orthodox Judaism, prohibit homosexual activity.[46] However, Reform Judaism accepts gay and lesbian members and rabbis. Orthodox Judaism does not exclude homosexuals, but requires that they not engage in homosexual sexual activities.

Brit milah (covenant of circumcision)

Main article: Brit milah

Judaism has been criticized for encouraging or requiring brit milah, a circumcision ritual performed on young boys, because the ritual is alleged to be painful, cruel, tantamount to genital mutilation, and without the boy's consent.[47] An anti-circumcision movement is active in some branches of Judaism.[48][49]

See also

References

  • Hartman, Tova (2007). Feminism encounters traditional Judaism: resistance and accommodation. UPNE.
  • Lustick, Ian (1988). For the land and the Lord: Jewish fundamentalism in Israel. Council on Foreign Relations. ISBN 0876090366.
  • Scult, Mel (1993). Judaism faces the twentieth century: a biography of Mordecai M. Kaplan. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814322808.
  • Shmueli, Ephraim (1990). Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521373816.

Notes

  1. ^ Eliezer Schwied (2007) "Does the Idea of Jewish Election Have Any Meaning after the Holocaust?". In Wrestling with God: Jewish theological responses during and after the Holocaust, Steven T. Katz, Shlomo Biderman (Eds.); Oxford University Press, p 233.
  2. ^ Gürkan, S. Leyla (2008). The Jews as a Chosen People: Tradition and Transformation. Taylor & Francis. pp. 49–55. ISBN 0415466075.
  3. ^
    • Hertzberg, Arthur (1998). Judaism. Simon and Schuster. p. 56. ISBN 0684852659.
    • Pasachoff, Naomi E. (2005). A concise history of the Jewish people. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 276. ISBN 0742543668.
  4. ^ Hertzberg, Arthur (1998). Judaism. Simon and Schuster. p. 56. ISBN 0684852659.
  5. ^ Wistrich, Robert S. Demonizing the other: antisemitism, racism & xenophobia. Taylor & Francis, 1999. p. 6. ISBN 9057024977.
  6. ^ Wilhoit, Francis M. (1979). The quest for equality in freedom. Transaction Publishers. p. 13. ISBN 0878552405.
  7. ^ Goodheart, Eugene. Confessions of a secular Jew: a memoir. Transaction Publishers year= 2004. pp. xv–xvi, 83. ISBN 0765805995. {{cite book}}: Missing pipe in: |publisher= (help); line feed character in |publisher= at position 23 (help)
  8. ^ "The Guiding Principles of Reform Judaism, Columbus, [[Ohio]], 1937". {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  9. ^
    • Dosick, Wayne D. (1995). Living Judaism: the complete guide to Jewish belief, tradition, and practice. HarperCollins. pp. 47–48. ISBN 0060621796,. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
    • Neusner, Jacob (2008). Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation. University of Chicago Press. p. 63. ISBN 0226576531.
  10. ^ Boiled in excrement:
    • Jewish history and Jewish memory: essays in honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi by Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, UPNE, 1998, page 33.
    • The Jew in the medieval book: English antisemitisms, 1350-1500 by Anthony Paul Bale, Cambridge University Press, 2006, page 33.
    • Why the Jews Rejected Jesus: The Turning Point in Western History by David Klinghoffer, Random House, Inc., 2006, page 154 (identifies source of criticism as King Louis IX).
    • Jesus in the Talmud by Peter Schäfer, Princeton University Press, 2007, p 13, 85, 88-89, 90-92, 113, 174.
    • From rebel to rabbi: reclaiming Jesus and the making of modern Jewish culture by Matthew B. Hoffman, Stanford University Press, 2007, page 4 (specifying Talmud verses: Sanhedrin 107b and Gittin 56b-57a)
    • Tolerance and intolerance in early Judaism and Christianity by Graham Stanton, Guy G. Stroumsa, Cambridge University Press, 1998, page 247 (also includes a discussion of the censorship that removed references to Jesus - see footnote #34 on page 256; includes the assertion that "Balaam" is one of the names used instead of Jesus/Yeshua).
    • Two Nations in Your Womb: Perceptions of Jews and Christians, by Israel Jacob Yuval, University of California Press, 2008, page 132.
    • Jesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence by Robert E. Van Voorst, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000, page 110 (also discusses use of name Balaam in lieu of Jesus/Yeshua).
    • Church, State, and Jew in the Middle Ages by Robert Chazan,Behrman House, Inc, 1979, page 227-230 (transcript of 1240 Paris disputation).
    • A history of the Jews by Paul Johnson, HarperCollins, 1988, page 217 (identifies critic as Nicholas Donin).
    • Rabbi Moses ha-Kohen of Tordesillas and his book Ezer ha-emunah, by Yehuda Shamir, BRILL, 1975, page 31-32 (identifies Pope Gregory IX as a critic).
  11. ^ Seidman, Naomi (2006). Faithful renderings: Jewish-Christian difference and the politics of translation. University of Chicago Press. p. 139. ISBN 0226745066,. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  12. ^
    • David Berger, 1998, "On the Uses of History in Medieval Jewish Polemic Against Christianity", in Jewish history and Jewish memory Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (Ed.), UPNE, pp. 32-33
    • Bale, Anthony Paul (2006). The Jew in the medieval book: English antisemitisms, 1350-1500. Cambridge University Press. p. 33. ISBN 0521863546.
    • Schäfer, Peter (2007). Jesus in the Talmud. Princeton University Press. pp. 85–92, 98–100. ISBN 0691129266.
    • Hoffman, Matthew B. (2007). From rebel to rabbi: reclaiming Jesus and the making of modern Jewish culture. Stanford University Press. pp. 4–5. ISBN 0804753717.
  13. ^ David Berger, 1998, "On the Uses of History in Medieval Jewish Polemic Against Christianity", in Jewish history and Jewish memory Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (Ed.), UPNE, p. 33
  14. ^ Hoffman, Matthew B. (2007). From rebel to rabbi: reclaiming Jesus and the making of modern Jewish culture. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804753717.
  15. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Uzayr
  16. ^ Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, Tahrif, Encyclopedia of Islam
  17. ^ Avi Shafran, "The Conservative Lie", Moment, February 2001.
  18. ^ Joe Berkofsky, "Death of Conservative Judaism? Reform leader’s swipe sparks angry rebuttals", j., March 5, 2004.
  19. ^ Laurie Goodstein, Conservative Jews Allow Gay Rabbis and Unions, The New York Times, 2006.
  20. ^ Carl. S. Ehrlich (1999) "Joshua, Judaism, and Genocide", in Jewish Studies at the Turn of the Twentieth Century, Judit Targarona Borrás, Ángel Sáenz-Badillos (Eds). 1999, Brill. p 117-124.
  21. ^ A. G. Hunter "Denominating Amalek: Racist stereotyping in the Bible and the Justification of Discrimination", in Sanctified aggression: legacies of biblical and post biblical vocabularies of violence, Jonneke Bekkenkamp, Yvonne Sherwood (Eds.). 2003, Continuum Internatio Publishing Group, pp 92-108
  22. ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God delusion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 245. ISBN 0618680004.
  23. ^ Horowitz, Elliott S. (2006). Reckless rites: Purim and the legacy of Jewish violence. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–3, 107–146, 187–212, 213–247. ISBN 0691124914.
  24. ^
    • Salaita, Steven George (2006). The Holy Land in transit: colonialism and the quest for Canaan. Syracuse University Press. p. 54. ISBN 081563109X.
    • Lustick, Ian (1988). For the land and the Lord: Jewish fundamentalism in Israel. Council on Foreign Relations. pp. 131–132. ISBN 0876090366.
    • Armstrong, Karen (2007). The Bible: a biography. Atlantic Monthly Press. pp. 211–216. ISBN 0871139693.
  25. ^
    • Hirst, David (2003). The gun and the olive branch: the roots of violence in the Middle East By. Nation Books. p. 418-419. ISBN 1560254831.
    • Chomsky, Noam (1996). World orders, old and new. Columbia University Press. p. 264:. ISBN 0231101570,. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
    • Masalha, Nur (2000). Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: the politics of expansion. Pluto Press. p. 93. ISBN 0745316158.
    • Quigley, John B. (1990). Palestine and Israel: a challenge to justice. Duke University Press. p. 176-177. ISBN 0822310236.
    • Chomsky, Noam (1999). Fateful triangle: the United States, Israel, and the Palestinians (2nd Ed, revised). South End Press. p. 153-154. ISBN 0896086011.
    • Saleh Abdel Jawad (2007) "Zionist Massacres: the Creation of the Palestinian Refugee Problem in the 1948 War" in Israel and the Palestinian refugees, Eyal Benvenistî, Chaim Gans, Sari Hanafi (Eds.), Springer, p. 78.
    • Yishai, Yael (1987). Land or peace: whither Israel?. Hoover Press. p. 112-125. ISBN 0817985212.
    • Rubenberg, Cheryl (2003). The Palestinians: in search of a just peace. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 162. ISBN 1588262251.
    • Salaita, Steven George (2006). The Holy Land in transit: colonialism and the quest for Canaan. Syracuse University Press. p. 54. ISBN 081563109X.
    • Geaves, Ron (2004). Islam and the West post 9/11. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 31. ISBN 0754650057.
  26. ^ Masalha, Nur (2007). The Bible and Zionism: invented traditions, archaeology and post-colonialism in Palestine-Israel. Zed Books. p. 194. ISBN 1842777610.
  27. ^ Harkabi, Yehoshafat (1974). Arab attitudes to Israel. John Wiley and Sons. p. 75. ISBN 0470352035.
  28. ^
    • Kassim, Anis F. (2000). The Palestine Yearbook of International Law, 1998-1999, Volume 10. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 9. ISBN 9041113045.
    • Masalha, Nur (2000). Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: the politics of expansion. Pluto Press. p. 251-252. ISBN 0745316158. citing the book by Raphael Israeli, Palestinians Between Israel and Jordan', Prager, 1991, pages 158-159, 171, 182.
  29. ^
    • Fraade, Steven D. (1994). The Other in Jewish thought and history: constructions of Jewish culture and identity",. NYU Press. pp. 145–165. ISBN 0814779905.
    • David Novak (1979) "Noahide Law: A Foundation for Jewish Philosophy (Elimination of the double standard)" in Tradition in the public square: a David Novak reader, (2008) Randi Rashkover (Ed.). p. 132-136, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
    • Shmueli, Ephraim (1990). Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought. Cambridge University Press. p. 261. ISBN 0521373816.
  30. ^ Efraim Shmueli, "Seven Jewish Cultures". Cambridge University Press, 1980. p. 123, 261
  31. ^ Babylonian Talmud, in Tractate Avodah Zarah 26b, as quoted by Arthur Segal, in "A Spiritual and Ethical Compendium to the Torah and Talmud", 2009, p. 228. See also Avodah Zarah 26a.
  32. ^ Maimonides, in his "Mishneh Torah", as quoted by Arthur Segal, in "A Spiritual and Ethical Compendium to the Torah and Talmud", 2009, p. 228
  33. ^ Tomson, Peter J. (1990). Paul and the Jewish law: halakha in the Letters of the Apostle to the Gentiles. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. pp. 151–163. ISBN 9023224906.
  34. ^ Schwarz, Sidney (2008). Judaism and Justice: The Jewish Passion to Repair the World. Jewish Lights Publishing. p. 74. ISBN 1580233538.
  35. ^ 8 saved during "Shabbat from hell" (January 17, 2010) in Israel 21c Innovation News Service Retrieved 2010–01–18
  36. ^ ZAKA rescuemission to Haiti 'proudly desecrating Shabbat' Religious rescue team holds Shabbat prayer with members of international missions in Port au-Prince. Retrieved 2010–01–22
  37. ^ Haviva Ner-David (2009) "Feminism and Halakhah: The Jew Who (Still) Isn't There". In Elyse Goldstein (Ed.), New Jewish feminism: probing the past, forging the future,p 313. Jewish Lights Publishing.
  38. ^
    • Zola, Gary Phillip (Ed.) (1996). Women rabbis: exploration & celebration. Hebrew Union College Press. pp. 2–4.
    • Nadell, Pamela S. (1999). Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination 1889-1985. Beacon Press. pp. 30–31. {{cite book}}: Text "isbn 0807036498" ignored (help)
  39. ^
    • Hartman, Tova (2007). Feminism encounters traditional Judaism: resistance and accommodation. UPNE.
    • Haviva Ner-David (2009). "Feminism and Halakhah: The Jew Who (Still) Isn't There". In Elyse Goldstein (Ed.), New Jewish feminism: probing the past, forging the future, pp 312-333. Jewish Lights Publishing.
    • Katharina von Kellenbach (2001). "Overcoming the teaching of contempt". In Athalya Brenner (Ed.), A feminist companion to reading the Bible: approaches, methods and strategies, pp 190-202. Taylor & Francis.
  40. ^ Vidal, Gore (2009). Selected Essays of Gore Vidal. Random House, Inc. p. 410. ISBN 0307388689.
  41. ^ Graetz, Naomi (2005). Unlocking the garden: a feminist Jewish look at the Bible, midrash and God. Gorgias Press. p. 15. ISBN 1593330588.
    Quoting from Frymer-Kensky, Tikva (2006). Studies in Bible and feminist criticism. Jewish Publication Society. p. 161.
  42. ^ Goldschneider, Calvin (2002). Israel's changing society: population, ethnicity, and development. Westview Press. p. 179.
  43. ^
    • Beth S. Wagner (2001). "Mitzvah and Medicine: Gender, Assimilation, and the Scientific Defense of Family Purity". In Susan Nadell (Ed.), Women and American Judaism: historical perspectives, pp.201-222. UPNE. This chapter documents research by Jewish scientists in the early 20th century who tried to prove that menstruating women harmed people and objects they came in contact with.
    • Kaye, Evelyn (1987). The hole in the sheet: a modern woman looks at Orthodox and Hasidic Judaism. L. Stuart. p. 147.
    This book quotes Rabbi Laura Geller: "Menstrual taboos are responsible for real damage to Jewish women's views of themselves and their bodies. I have met many women who learned nothing about the Torah except that they could not touch the Torah because they menstruate. . . . Their sense of themselves as 'inferior' Jews has already permeated their relationship to tradition and their own bodies."
  44. ^ Hartman, Tova (2007). Feminism encounters traditional Judaism: resistance and accommodation. UPNE. p. 84.
  45. ^ Beth S. Wagner (2001). "Mitzvah and Medicine: Gender, Assimilation, and the Scientific Defense of Family Purity". In Susan Nadell (Ed.), Women and American Judaism: historical perspectives, p. 204. UPNE.
  46. ^
    • Greenberg, Steven (2005). Wrestling with God and men: homosexuality in the Jewish tradition. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 3–40. ISBN 0299190943.
    • Raphael, Marc Lee (2005). Judaism in America. Columbia University Press. pp. 121–123. {{cite book}}: Text "isbn 0231120613" ignored (help)
    • Denise L. Eger (2001), "Embracing Lesbians and Gay Men", in Contemporary debates in American reform Judaism: conflicting visions, Dana Evan Kaplan (Ed.), Routledge, p. 180-192
  47. ^
    • Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why aren't Jewish women circumcised?: gender and covenant in Judaism. University of California Press. pp. 207–224. ISBN 0520212509.
    • Glick, Leonard B. (2005). Marked in your flesh: circumcision from ancient Judea to modern America. Oxford University Press. pp. 115–148. ISBN 019517674X.
    • Mark, Elizabeth Wyner (2003). The covenant of circumcision: new perspectives on an ancient Jewish rite. UPNE. pp. 157–160. ISBN 1584653078.
    See also Tabory and Erez, "Circumscribed Circumcision", pages 161-167, in this book.
    • Silverman, Eric Kline (2006). From Abraham to America: a history of Jewish circumcision. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 177–212. ISBN 0742516695.
  48. ^ Chernikoff, Helen (October 3, 2007). "Jewish "intactivists" in U.S. stop circumcising". Reuters. Retrieved 2007-11-03.
  49. ^ Goldman, PhD, Ron (2006). "Providers of Brit Shalom". Jews Against Circumcision. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
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