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Spitsbergen

Coordinates: 78°54′N 18°01′E / 78.900°N 18.017°E / 78.900; 18.017
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This article is about the island. For the archipelago of which it is a part, see Svalbard.
Spitsbergen
Map
Geography
LocationArctic Ocean
Coordinates78°54′N 18°01′E / 78.900°N 18.017°E / 78.900; 18.017
ArchipelagoSvalbard
Area rank36th
Administration
Norway
Demographics
Population2,753

Spitsbergen (formerly known as West Spitsbergen; Norwegian: Vest Spitsbergen or Vestspitsbergen)[1][2][3] is the largest and only permanently populated island of the Svalbard archipelago in Norway. Constituting the western-most bulk of the archipelago, it borders Arctic Ocean, the Norwegian Sea and the Greenland Sea. Spitsbergen covers an area of 39,044 km2 (15,075 sq mi), making it the largest island in Norway and the 36th-largest in the world. The administrative center is Longyearbyen, and other settlements, in addition to research outposts, are the Russian mining community of Barentsburg, the research community of Ny-Ålesund and the mining outpost of Sveagruva.

The island was first taken into use as a whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries, after which it was abandoned. Coal mining started at the beginning of the 20th century, and several permanent communities were established. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty and established Svalbard as a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone. The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol remain the only mining companies. Research and tourism have became important supplementary industries, featuring among others the University Centre in Svalbard and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. No roads connect the settlements; instead snowmobiles, aircraft and boats serve inter-community transport. Svalbard Airport, Longyear serves as the main gateway.

The island features an Arctic climate, although with significantly higher temperatures than other areas at the same latitude. The flora takes advantage of the long period of midnight sun to compensate for the polar night. Svalbard is a breeding ground for many seabirds, and also features polar bears, reindeer and marine mammals. Six national parks protect the largely untouched, yet fragile, nature. The island features many glaciers, mountains and fjords.

Etymology

Portion of 1599 map of Arctic exploration by Willem Barentsz. Spitsbergen, here mapped for the first time, is indicated as "Het Nieuwe Land" (Dutch for "the New Land"), center-left.

Spitsbergen was named by its discoverer Willem Barentsz in 1596. The name Spitsbergen, meaning “pointed mountains” (from the Dutch spits - pointed, bergen - mountains),[4] was at first applied to both the main island and the archipelago as a whole. Already in 1636 and in 1655 the German spelling Spitzbergen was mistakenly used.[5][6] In the early seventeenth century the islands were known as "Greenland" to the English whalers [7] a practice still followed in 1780 and criticized by Bacstrom at that time.[8] The German spelling "Spitzbergen" was used in English during the 19th century, for instance by Beechey,[9] Laing,[10] and the Royal Society (1860)[11]

In 1906, the Arctic explorer Sir Martin Conway, who wrote the standard work in English on the subject,[12] was of the opinion that the German spelling Spitzbergen was incorrect, preferring Spitsbergen,[13] though this had little effect on British practice.[14][15] In 1920 the treaty determining the fate of the islands was entitled the "Spitsbergen Treaty", and the islands were referred to in the USA as Spitsbergen from that time,[16] though the German spelling Spitzbergen was commonly used by British authors throughout the 20th century[17] - this mistake wasn't made by authors familiar with the island and its history.[18] Under Norwegian governance the archipelago was named Svalbard in 1925, the main island becoming Spitsbergen, and by the end of the 20th century this usage had become general.

History

The first confirmed sighting of the island was by Willem Barentsz, who came across it while searching for the Northern Sea Route in June 1596.[19] The first good map with the east coast roughly indicated, appeared in 1623, printed by Willem Janszoon Blaeu. Around 1660 and 1728 better maps were produced.[20][21]

However, this archipelago may have been known to Russian Pomor hunters as early as the 14th or 15th century, though solid evidence from before the 17th century is lacking. Following the English whalers and others in referring to the archipelago as Greenland, they named it Grumant (Грумант). The name Svalbard is first mentioned in Icelandic sagas of the 10th and 11th centuries, but they more likely refer to Jan Mayen or even Greenland.

Geography of Spitsbergen

Early claims

Early whaling expeditions to Svalbard in general and Spitsbergen in particular tended, because of currents and fauna, to cluster around the western coast of Spitsbergen and the islands off-shore. Shortly after whaling began (1611), the Danish crown claimed ownership (1616) of Jan Mayen and the Spitsbergen islands, as all of Svalbard was then known. But in 1613, the English Muscovy Company had done the same. The primary and most profitable whaling grounds of this joint-stock company came to be centered around Spitsbergen in the early 17th Century, and the company's royal charter of 1613 granted a monopoly on whaling in Spitsbergen, based on the (erroneous) claim that Hugh Willoughby had discovered the land in 1553.[22][23] Not only had they wrongly assumed a 1553 English voyage had reached the area, but on 27 June 1607, during his first voyage in search of a "northeast passage" on behalf of the company, Henry Hudson sighted "Newland" (i.e. Spitsbergen), near the mouth of the great bay Hudson later simply named the Great Indraught (Isfjorden). In this way the English hoped to head off expansion by the Dutch in the region, at the time their major rival.[24][25] Initially the English tried to drive away competitors; but after disputes with the Dutch (1613–24), they, for the most part, only claimed the bays south of Kongsfjorden.[26]

Danish expansion

A 1906 photograph of the Norwegian whaling factory ship Bucentaur in Bellsund, Spitsbergen.
Hornsund Polish Arctic Station, photographed in 2003
Skottehytta in Petuniabukta, Spitsbergen - polar base of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Poland
Lilliehookfjorden
DeGeerdalen just south of Isfjorden shoreline.

From 1617 onwards, a Danish-chartered company began sending whaling fleets to Spitsbergen.[27] This successful expansion by Copenhagen into the North Atlantic has recently been cited by historians as the first step of the Danish-Norwegian state into overseas colonialism, which eventually built a small 17th century empire of East Indian trade posts, North Atlantic possessions (such as Greenland and Iceland) and a small Atlantic trade route between possessions on the Guinea Coast (in modern Ghana) and what is now the U.S. Virgin Islands.[28][29]

The entire Svalbard archipelago, nominally ruled first by Denmark–Norway, and later the Norwegians (as Union between Sweden and Norway from 1814–1905, independent Norway from 1905), remained a source of riches for fishery and whaling vessels from many nations. The islands also became the launching point for a number of Arctic explorers, including William Edward Parry, Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Otto Martin Torell, Alfred Gabriel Nathorst, Roald Amundsen and Ernest Shackleton.

Spitsbergen Treaty

Between 1913 and 1920 Spitsbergen was a neutral condominium. The Spitsbergen Treaty of February 9, 1920, recognises the full and absolute sovereignty of Norway over all the arctic archipelago of Svalbard.[citation needed] The exercise of sovereignty is, however, subject to certain stipulations, and not all Norwegian law applies. Originally limited to nine signatory nations, over 40 are now signatories of the treaty. Citizens of any of the signatory countries may settle in the archipelago. Currently, only Norway and Russia make use of this right.

Once named Spitsbergen for its largest island, the Svalbard was made a part of Norway—not a dependency—by the Svalbard Act of 1925. Since this date it has been a portion of Norway, with a Norwegian appointed Governor resident at the capitol of Longyearbyen, albeit with limitations on the imposition of certain Norwegian laws as outlined in the Spitsbergen Treaty.

The largest settlement on Spitsbergen is the Norwegian town of Longyearbyen, while the second largest settlement is the Russian coal mining settlement of Barentsburg (which was sold by the Netherlands in 1932 to the Soviet company Arktikugol). Other settlements on the island include the former Russian mining communities of Grumantbyen and Pyramiden (abandoned in 1961 and 1998, respectively), a Polish research station at Hornsundet, and the remote northern settlement of Ny-Ålesund.[30]

World War II

Further information: Operation Gauntlet, Operation Fritham, and Operation Zitronella

Allied soldiers were stationed on the island in 1941 to prevent Nazi Germany from occupying the islands. While the island had officially been ceded to Norway in the 1920s, that country fell under German occupation in 1940. The majority of inhabitants on the island were Russian (Soviet Union had a non-aggression pact with Germany until June 22, 1941). The United Kingdom and Canada sent military forces to the island to destroy installations, mainly Soviet coal mines, and prevent the Germans from occupying it.[31] The German battleship Tirpitz and an escort flotilla shelled and destroyed the Allied weather station there in Operation Sizilien in 1943. On 6 September, a squadron consisting of Tirpitz, the battlecruiser Scharnhorst and nine destroyers weighed anchor in Altenfjord and Kåfjord and headed for Spitsbergen, to attack the Allied base there. At dawn on 8 September 1943 Tirpitz and Scharnhorst opened fire against the two 3-inch guns which comprised the defences of Barentsburg, and the destroyers ran inshore with landing parties. Before noon it was all over. Some prisoners had been taken, a supply dump destroyed, the wireless station wrecked and the landing parties had returned on board. The German ships returned safely to Altenfjord and Kåfjord on 9 September 1943. This was to be Tirpitzs last operation.[32]

Population

The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over Svalbard. All forty signatory countries of the treaty have the right to conduct commercial activities on the archipelago without discrimination, although all activity is subject to Norwegian legislation. The treaty limits Norway's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard. Spitsbergen is a demilitarized zone, as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations. The treaty requires Norway to protect the natural environment.[33][34] The island is administrated by the Governor of Svalbard, who holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police, as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch.[35] Although Norway is part of the European Economic Area (EEA) and the Schengen Agreement, Svalbard is not part of the Schengen Area nor EEA.[36] Residents of Spitsbergen do not need visas for Schengen, but are prohibited from reaching Svalbard from mainland Norway without such. People without a means to income, can be rejected by the governor.[37] Citizens of any treaty signatory country may visit the island without a visa.[38] Russia retains a consulate in Barentsburg.[39]

In 2009, Spitsbergen had a population of 2,753, of which 423 were Russian and Ukrainian, 10 were Polish and 322 were non-Norwegians living in Norwegian settlements.[40] The largest non-Norwegian groups in Longyearbyen in 2005 were from Thailand, Sweden, Denmark, Russia and Germany.[41] Spitsbergen is among the safest places on Earth, with virtually no crime.[42]

Longyearbyen

Longyearbyen is the largest settlement on the island, the seat of the governor and the only town to be incorporated. The town features a hospital, primary and secondary school, university, sports center with a swimming pool, library, culture center, cinema,[43] bus transport, hotels, a bank,[44] and several museums.[45] The newspaper Svalbardposten is published weekly.[46] Only a small fraction of the mining activity remains at Longyearbyen; instead, workers commute to Sveagruva (or Svea) where Store Norske operates a mine. Sveagruva is a dorm town, with workers commuting from Longyearbyen on a weekly basis.[43]

Since 2002, Longyearbyen Community Council has had many of the same responsibilities of a municipality, including utilities, education, cultural facilities, fire department, roads and ports.[47] No care or nursing services are available, nor is welfare payment available. Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities.[48] The hospital is part of University Hospital of North Norway, while the airport is operated by state-owned Avinor. Ny-Ålesund and Barentsburg remain company towns with all infrastructure owned by Kings Bay and Arktikugol, respectively.[47] Other public offices with presence on Svalbard are the Norwegian Directorate of Mining, the Norwegian Polar Institute, the Norwegian Tax Administration and the Church of Norway.[49] Svalbard is subordinate Nord-Troms District Court and Hålogaland Court of Appeal, both located in Tromsø.[50]

Main street of Barentsburg

Ny-Ålesund is a permanent settlement based entirely around research. Formerly a mining town, it is still a company town operated by the Norwegian state-owned Kings Bay. While there is some tourism at the village, Norwegian authorities limit the access to the outpost to minimize impact on the scientific work.[43] Ny-Ålesund has a winter population of 35 and a summer population of 180.[51] Poland operates the Polish Polar Station at Hornsund, with ten permanent residents.[43]

Barentsburg is the only remaining Russian settlement, after Pyramiden was abandoned in 1998. A company town, all facilities are owned by Arktikugol, who operate a coal mine, although operation has been halted since 2006. In addition to the mining facilities, Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop, catering to tourist taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen.[43] The village features facilities such as a school, library, sports center, community center, swimming pool, farm and greenhouse. Pyramiden features similar facilities; both are built in typical Soviet style and contain the world's two most northerly Lenin statues and other socialist realism artwork.[52]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Svalbard
File:Svalbard Global Seed Vault main entrance 1.jpg
Svalbard Global Seed Vault is located in the outskirts of Longyearbyen

The three main industries on Spitsbergen are coal mining, tourism and research. In 2007, there were 484 people working in the mining sector, 211 people working in the tourism sector and 111 people working in the education sector. The same year, the mining gave a revenue of NOK 2,008 million, tourism NOK 317 million and research NOK 142 million.[47] In 2006, the average income for economically active people was NOK 494,700—23% higher than on the mainland.[53] Almost all housing is owned by the various employers and institutions and rented to their employees; there are only a few privately-owned houses, most of which are recreational cabins. Because of this, it is nearly impossible to live on Spitsbergen without working for an established institution.[37]

Since the resettlement of Spitsbergen in the early 20th century, coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity. Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani, a subsidiary of the Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry, operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen. The former produced 3.4 million tonnes in 2008, while the latter uses 35% of its output to Longyearbyen Power Station. Since 2007, there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state-owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg. There have previously been performed test drilling for petroleum on land, but these did not give satisfactory results for permanent operation. The Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum activities for environmental reasons, and the land formerly test-drilled on has been protected as natural reserves or national parks.[47]

Abandoned mine Longyearbyen

Spitsbergen has historically been a base for both whaling and fishing. Norway claimed a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around Svalbard in 1977,[54] Norway retains a restrictive fisheries policy in the zone,[54] and the claims are disputed by Russia.[55] Tourism is focused on the environment and is centered around Longyearbyen. Activities include hiking, kayaking, walks through glacier caves and snow-scooter and dog-sled safari. Cruise ships generate a significant portion of the traffic, including both stops by offshore vessels and expeditionary cruises starting and ending in Svalbard. Traffic is strongly concentrated between March and August; overnights have quintupled from 1991 to 2008, when there were 93,000 guest-nights.[47]

Research on Svalbard centers around Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund, the most accessible areas in the high Arctic. Norway grants permission for any nation to conduct research on Svalbard, resulting in the Polish Polar Station and the Chinese Arctic Yellow River Station, plus Russian facilities in Barentsburg.[56] The University Centre in Svalbard in Longyearbyen offers undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate courses to 350 students in various arctic sciences, particularly biology, geology and geophysics. Courses are provided to supplement studies at the mainland universities; there are no tuition fees and courses are held in English, with Norwegian and international students equally represented.[57] The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a "doomsday" seedbank to store seeds from as many of the world's crop varieties and their botanical wild relatives as possible. A cooperation between the Government of Norway and the Global Crop Diversity Trust, the vault is cut into rock near Longyearbyen, keeping it at a natural −6 °C (21 °F) and refrigerating the seeds to −18 °C (0 °F).[58][59] The Svalbard Undersea Cable System is a 1,440 km (890 mi) fibre optic lines from Svalbard to Harstad, needed for communicating with polar orbiting satellite through Svalbard Satellite Station and installations in Ny-Ålesund.[60][61]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Svalbard
Ships, such as MS Horyzint, is a common way for tourists to get around the island

Within Longyearbyen, Barentsburg and Ny-Ålesund, there are road systems, but they do not connect with each other. Off-road motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground, but snowmobiles are used extensively during winter—both for commercial and recreational activities. Transport from Longyearbyen to Barentsburg (45 km (28 mi)*) and Pyramiden (100 km (62 mi)*) is possible by snowmobile by winter, or by ship all year round. All settlements have ports and Longyearbyen has a bus system.[62]

Svalbard Airport, Longyear, located 3 kilometres (2 mi) from Longyearbyen, is the only airport offering air transport off the island. Scandinavian Airlines has daily scheduled services to Tromsø and Oslo; there are also irregular charter services to Russia.[63] Lufttransport provides regular corporate charter services from Longyearbyen to Ny-Ålesund Airport and Svea Airport for Kings Bay and Store Norske; these flights are in general not available to the public.[64] There are heliports in Barentsburg and Pyramiden, and helicopters are frequently used by the governor and to a less extent the mining company Arktikugol.[65]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Svalbard
Snow is common throughout the year

The climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude, with the average summer temperature at 4 °C (39 °F) to 6 °C (43 °F) and January averages at −12 °C (10 °F) to −16 °C (3 °F).[66] The North Atlantic Current moderates Spitsbergens's temperatures, particularly during winter, giving it up to 20 °C (36 °F) higher winter temperature than similar latitudes in Russia and Canada. This keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year. The interior fjord areas and valleys, sheltered by the mountains, have less temperature differences than the coast, giving about 2 °C (4 °F) lower summer temperatures and 3 °C (5 °F) higher winter temperatures. On the south of Spitsbergen, the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west. During winter, the temperature difference between south and north is typically 5 °C (9 °F), while about 3 °C (5 °F) in summer.[67]

Spitsbergen is the meeting place for cold polar air from the north and mild, wet sea air from the south, creating low pressure and changing weather and fast winds, particularly in winter; in January, a strong breeze is registered 17% of the time at Isfjord Radio, but only 1% of the time in July. In summer, particularly away from land, fog is common, with visibility under 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) registered 20% of the time in July.[68] Precipitation is frequent, but falls in small quantities, typically less than 400 millimetres (16 in) in western Spitsbergen. More rain falls in the uninhabited east side, where there can be more than 1,000 millimetres (39 in).[68]

Nature

Main article: Environment of Svalbard
Svalbard poppy

In addition to humans, four primarily terrestrial mammalian species inhabit the island: the Arctic Fox, the Svalbard reindeer, polar bears and accidentally introduced Southern Vole—which is only found in Grumant.[69] Attempts to introduce the Arctic Hare and the muskox have both failed.[70] There are fifteen to twenty types of marine mammals, including whales, dolphins, seals and walruses.[69]

Polar bears are the iconic symbol of Spitsbergen, and one of the main tourist attractions.[71] While protected, anyone outside of settlements is required to carry a rifle to kill polar bears in self-defense, as a last resort, should they attack.[72] Spitsbergen shares a common polar bear population with the rest of Svalbard and Franz Joseph Land. The Svalbard reindeer (R. tarandus platyrhynchus) is a distinct sub-species, and while previously almost extinct, hunting is permitted for both it and the Arctic Fox.[69] There are a limited number of domesticated animals in Russian settlements.[73]

Svalbard reindeer

About thirty types of bird are found on Spitsbergen, most of which are migratory. The Barents Sea is among the areas in the world with most seabirds, with about 20 million individuals during late summer. The most common are Little Auk, Northern Fulmar, Thick-billed Murre and Black-legged Kittiwake. Sixteen species are on the IUCN Red List. Particularly Storfjorden and Nordvest-Spitsbergen are important breeding ground for seabirds. The Arctic Tern has the furthest migration, all the way to Antarctica.[69] Only two songbirds migrate to Spitsbergen to breed: the Snow Bunting and the Wheatear. Rock Ptarmigan is the only bird to overwinter.[74] Remains of Predator X from the Jurassic period have been found; it is the largest dinosaur-era marine reptile ever found—a pliosaur estimated to be almost 15 m (49 ft) long.[75]

Svalbard has permafrost and tundra, with both low, middle and high Arctic vegetation. 165 species of plants have been found on the archipelago.[69] Only those areas which defrost in the summer have vegetations.[76] Vegetation is most abundant in Nordenskiöld Land, around Isfjorden and where effected by guano.[77] While there is little precipitation, giving the island has a steppe climate, plants still have good access to water because the cold climate reduces evaporation.[68][69] The growing season is very short, and may only last a few weeks.[78]

There are six national parks in Spitsbergen: Indre Wijdefjorden, Nordenskiöld Land, Nordre Isfjorden Land, Nordvest-Spitsbergen, Sassen-Bünsow Land and Sør-Spitsbergen.[79] The island also features Festningen Geotope Protected Area; some of the northeastern coast is part of Nordaust-Svalbard Nature Reserve.[80] All human traces dating from before 1946 are automatically protected.[72] Svalbard is on Norway's tentative list for nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[81]

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  66. ^ "Temperaturnormaler for Spitsbergen i perioden 1961 - 1990" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Meteorological Institute. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
  67. ^ Torkilsen (1984): 98–99
  68. ^ a b c Torkilsen (1984): 101
  69. ^ a b c d e f "Protected Areas in Svalbard" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
  70. ^ Umbreit (2005): 33
  71. ^ Torkildsen (1984): 174
  72. ^ a b Umbriet (2005): 132
  73. ^ Torkildsen (1984): 165
  74. ^ Torkilsen (1984): 162
  75. ^ "Enormous Jurassic Sea Predator, Pliosaur, Discovered In Norway". Science Daily. 29 February 2008. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
  76. ^ Torkilsen (1984): 144
  77. ^ Umbreit (2005): 29–30
  78. ^ Umbreit (2005): 32
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Bibliography

  • Arlov, Thor B. (1996). Svalbards historie (in Norwegian). Oslo: Aschehoug. ISBN 82-03-22171-8.
  • Arlov, Thor B. and Arne O. Holm (2001). Fra company town til folkestyre (in Norwegian). Longyearbyen: Svalbard Samfunnsdrift. ISBN 82-996168-0-8.
  • Fløgstad, Kjartan (2007). Pyramiden: portrett av ein forlaten utopi (in Norwegian). Oslo: Spartacus. ISBN 82-430-0398-9. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  • Tjomsland, Audun and Wilsberg, Kjell (1995). Braathens SAFE 50 år: Mot alle odds. Oslo. ISBN 82-990400-1-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Torkildsen, Torbjørn; et al. (1984). Svalbard: vårt nordligste Norge (in Norwegian). Oslo: Forlaget Det Beste. ISBN 82-7010-167-2. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  • Umbreit, Andreas (2005). Guide to Spitsbergen. Bucks: Bradt. ISBN 1-84162-092-0.
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