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Petitcodiac River

Coordinates: 46°4′7.27″N 64°48′50.32″W / 46.0686861°N 64.8139778°W / 46.0686861; -64.8139778
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Template:Geobox The Petitcodiac River /pɛtiˈkoʊdi.æk/ (also known as the Chocolate River) is a Canadian river in southeastern New Brunswick. The river runs 129 kilometres (80 miles) through the province's Westmorland, Albert, and Kings counties, draining a watershed area of approximately 2,831 square kilometres (1,093 sq mi). Ten established tributaries join the river in its course toward its mouth in Shepody Bay. Prior to the construction of a causeway in 1968, the river was the site of one of the world's largest tidal bores, which ranged from 1 to 2 metres (3.3–6.6 ft) in height and 5 to 13 kilometres per hour (3.1–8.1 mph) in velocity.

The Mi'kmaq were the first to settle near the river, and used it as part of a portage route between Shubenacadie and the village of Petitcodiac, where they had a winter camp. Acadians from Port Royal, Nova Scotia colonised the region in 1698, but were expelled in 1755 during the French and Indian War. In the Battle of Petitcodiac, Acadian resistance fighters in Village-des-Blanchard (now Hillsborough) fought under the command of French leader Charles Deschamps de Boishébert to fend off English troops, and witnessed the destruction of most of their settlement.

In 1968, a controversial rock-and-earth causeway was built between Moncton and Riverview to prevent agricultural flooding and to serve as a roadway between the two communities. The causeway caused numerous problems for the river and its surrounding ecosystem. An estimated 10 million cubic metres (13 million cubic yards) of silt was deposited in the 4.7 km (2.9 mi) of river beneath the causeway in the first three years following construction. This gave the river a brownish tint, which prompted many residents to label it the "Chocolate River". It also restricted the movement of fish, which led to a reduction in the region's salmon catches by 82%. Earthwild International designated the Petitcodiac River as the most endangered river in Canada in 2003 as a result of these problems. On April 14, 2010, the causeway was opened permanently as part of a $68 million three-phase project designed to restore the river and replace the gates with a bridge.

Etymology

The name of the river derives from the Mi'kmaq term Epetkutogoyek, meaning "the river that bends like a bow", a reference to the 90° bend near Moncton. This contradicts the popular belief that the name derived from the French term "petit coude", meaning "little elbow".[1][2] Acadians transformed the term to Petcoudiac or Petitcoudiac, which was then modified to the current name by English settlers.[3] When the Petitcodiac River Causeway was built, a large amount of sediment began to accumulate in the lower half of the river. The sedimentation prompted residents to call it the "Chocolate River" due to the brown tint.[4][5]

Geography

Course

A map of the area shows the river and its tributaries. Moncton is near the top of the map, and the Bay of Fundy in the lower right corner.
A map of the Petitcodiac River watershed

The river measures around 129 km (80 mi) from Shepody Bay to Petitcodiac,[6] and originates at the confluence of the Anagance and North rivers, near Petitcodiac in western Westmorland County.[7][8] The Anagance River arises from its tributaries, Hayward Brook and Holmes Brook, and drains 81 km2 (31 sq mi) of area to the right of Petitcodiac River,[9][10] while the North River drains 264 km2 (102 sq mi) to the left.[7][10][11] From the confluence, the river runs in a straight line through Petitcodiac before passing under the bridge on Route 106, which it follows most of the way as it banks to the left.[12][13] Route 1 crosses the river a few kilometres downstream to join Trans-Canada Highway 2.[14][15] River Glade precedes Petitcodiac River's right tributary, Pollett River, between Elgin and Salisbury, with a watershed of 314 km2 (121 sq mi).[10][16] As the waterway runs past Salisbury, it joins its final major right tributary,[17] Little River (formerly known as Coverdale River),[18] which drains 275 km2 (106 sq mi) of area.[10][18] The river passes Coverdale and is joined by Turtle Creek before widening as it approaches Moncton.[10]

Prior to April 14, 2010, the causeway at Riverview would impede all but 6.1 m (20 ft) of water as the river flowed downstream toward the Gunningsville Bridge.[19] Before the causeway's construction, the total river surface area continued to expand past the bridge and Dieppe.[8] A series of banks on both sides of the river precede the 90° turn toward the south,[8] a feature that gave Moncton its original name, Le Coude (The Elbow).[20] Kilometres later, the river passes Memramcook to the left and Hillsborough to the right as it approaches its mouth.[8][10]

The Petitcodiac River is joined by the adjacent Memramcook River, which has a watershed area of 412 km2 (159 sq mi) when combined with the Lower Memramcook River.[21][22] The river widens and drains into Shepody Bay, where there is a 122 km2 (47 sq mi) wetland.[23] Once past the Hopewell Rocks, Shepody Bay merges with the Cumberland Basin, which runs southwest toward Chignecto Bay.[8] Chignecto Bay drains into the Bay of Fundy, which flows into the Gulf of Maine, which proceeds south into the Atlantic Ocean through the Northeast Channel.[24]

Watershed

The Petitcodiac River watershed, a 2,831 km ([convert: unit mismatch]) drainage area, was home to over 126,000 people as of 2006.[25][26] The average yearly precipitation in the watershed is 1,100 millimetres (43 in), with average temperatures of 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) in the summer and −7.5 °C (18.5 °F) in the winter.[25] The major part of the river is in the Caledonian Highlands, within the Kings, Westmorland, and Albert counties in southeast New Brunswick.[25][27] It borders the Bay of Fundy and three other designated watersheds in the province: the lower Saint John River to the north-west, the Shediac Bay to the north-east, and the Kennebecasis River to the south.[10] Despite the fact that the Petitcodiac River's watershed is geographically distinct from that of the nearby Memramcook River, some groups merge the two for categorisational purposes.[10][25]

Although the area has been occupied by Europeans since the late 17th century, a large portion of the area remains virtually unmodified, with 80% of the watershed covered with forest.[25][28] A tenth of the area is used for agricultural purposes, while three percent is occupied by wetlands, leaving only four percent for commercial, residential, or private usage. In spite of this, the Petitcodiac Watershed Monitoring Group noted in 2001 that the growing population of Greater Moncton is one of the main factors for the ongoing "environmental degradation" of the river.[29]

Hydrology

Water quality

A dirty brown creek with garbage in it
A polluted waterway in the Petitcodiac River watershed

The Petitcodiac River was listed in 2003 as the most endangered river in Canada by Earthwild International,[30] and was listed second, behind Quebec's Rupert River, in 2002.[31] The causeway was cited as one of the major factors behind the river's degraded health.[30] The watershed was rated on the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment's Water Quality Index, which gave two study sites an "excellent" rating, 20 sites a "good" rating, 27 sites a "fair" rating, and five sites a "marginal" rating.[25]

Water samples have been collected by the Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance since 1999 to study bacteria, nutrient, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and sediment levels from May to October.[32] Two sampling sites—one downstream from the causeway, the other upstream from the causeway—were used during the 2009 study.[33] The river has an average temperature of 27 °C (81 °F) in August at the upstream location, in contrast to the average of 20.1 °C (68.2 °F) at the same site over the period of the study.[34][35] E. coli levels were high upstream, and above recreationally safe levels downstream in June, July, and August. Nitrates and phosphates failed to meet the safe quality threshold on occasion.[34] A publication by the New Brunswick Department of Environment in 2007 showed that the watershed did not meet the quality guidelines for E. coli in ten percent of samples, for DO in five percent of samples, and pH in three percent of samples; in contrast, the river was within safe nitrate levels 100% of the time.[25]

The Petitcodiac Riverkeeper listed the ten worst pollution sources in a report published on January 2010: the Petitcodiac Causeway,[36] poor sewage treatment throughout the watershed,[37] seepage from a Moncton landfill that closed in 1992,[38] the Memramcook and Shepody causeways,[39] urban development,[40] sedimentation,[41] the presence of abandoned dams and water barriers,[42] stormwater runoff,[43] pesticide usage,[44] and uranium exploration.[45] The New Brunswick Department of Environment also noted the erosion caused by the removal of the river's riparian zones, which is a common "land use practice".[25]

Discharge

The river aids in the drainage of ten significant bodies of water: Weldon Creek, Fox Creek, Mill Creek, Halls Creek, Jonathan Creek, Turtle Creek, Little River, Pollett River, Anagance River, and North River.[46] A report in 2000 showed that it handles an average discharge of 27.3 m3/s (960 cu ft/s) into its mouth yearly, with a recorded high of 730 m3/s (26,000 cu ft/s) in 1962 and a low of 0.36 m3/s (13 cu ft/s) in 1966.[47] The same report estimated mean values for the minimum and maximum discharges for every two-year, 10-year, and 100-year flood events, and minimum discharges for every two-year, five-year, and 100-year "drought" events:

Mean maximum and minimum discharges, expressed in mTemplate:^3/s (cu ft/s)[48]
Minimum Maximum
Two-year low 1.5 (53) 293 (10,300) Two-year high
Five-year low 0.92 (32) 457 (16,100) Ten-year high
100-year low 0.32 (11) 655 (23,100) 100-year high
Record low 0.36 (12) 730 (25,780) Record high
A wave rolls by in the foreground, while a boat sits to the left of the background.
A reproduction of the tidal bore in 1906

Tidal bore

Tidal bores—retrograde waves moving upstream over downstream waves—forming from the world's highest tides in the Bay of Fundy occur in the Petitcodiac River twice daily.[49][50] Its existence was first mentioned by British Lieutenant Colonel George Scott on November 17, 1758, during a downstream voyage from Moncton to Fort Frederick, near Saint John.[51] The Admiralty referenced the tidal bore in a hydrographic chart published in 1861, observing that "[after] its passage the rise of the tide is very rapid until high water is attained", and that "[during the lowest tides] the Bore still appears but its broken front usually is only a few inches high."[52]

The river exhibited one of the world's highest bores, deemed to have ranged from 1 to 2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in height, and with speeds from 5 to 13 km (3.1–8.1 mi).[53][54][55] Peter Fisher notes the sound generated from the wave in 1825, saying that the "noise of the Bore is heard a great distance, and animals immediately take to the highland, and manifest visible signs of terror if near it."[56] Following the construction of the causeway, the bores reached heights from about 5 to 75 cm (2.0–29.5 in).[54] The pre-1968 values were once compared with tidal bores such as those present in the Qiantang River, the Hooghly River, and the Amazon River.[3][49]

Wildlife

A white-bellied dark-green fish with a small head pointing to the left.
A shad. The American shad is one of the four fish species that have disappeared from the river since 1968.

Prior to the construction of the causeway, the Petitcodiac River was home to a large number of marine species. Fish included the Atlantic tomcod and the rainbow smelt, both with populations originally in the hundreds of thousands. The gaspereau and the American shad numbered in the tens of thousands; the American eel, the Atlantic salmon, the brook trout, the lamprey, and the striped bass all originally numbered in the thousands; and the Atlantic sturgeon numbered in the hundreds.[57] Other fish include the blueback herring, the brown bullhead, the chain pickerel, the smallmouth bass, the white perch, and the white sucker.[58] Marine mammals were uncommon, but normally consisted of pilot whales, Atlantic white-sided dolphins, harbour porpoise, harbour seals, and porbeagles.[57] Freshwater mollusc species included the brook floater, the dwarf wedgemussel, the Eastern ellipto, the Eastern floater, the Eastern pearlshell, and the triangle floater.[57] Numerous other aquatic organisms are thought to have once entered the watershed due to the low salinity of the water.[59]

Six of these species have disappeared from the river since the mid-1980s.[57] The Petitcodiac River was the only known habitat of the dwarf wedgemussel in Canada, and was subsequently isolated to just nine American watersheds following its elimination from the Petitcodiac.[58] The Atlantic salmon is no longer extant in the watershed, and has since been listed as an endangered species in Canada.[57] The American shad was a favourite with fishermen, and represented two-thirds of the entire Canadian shad landings from 1870 to 1900; catches peaked at 0.91 to 2.72 million kilograms (two to six million pounds) per year.[60] Three other species have been eliminated from the river: the striped bass, the Atlantic sturgeon, and the Atlantic tomcod.[57] However, a project of the Petitcodiac Riverkeeper, funded by the Government of Canada's Environmental Damage Fund in 2005, noted that the removal of the causeway would result in a "good" chance of bringing back the eliminated species, and an "excellent" chance of increasing the numbers of species deemed to have been reduced in numbers. No data has been released for the Atlantic salmon or the striped bass.[57]

The Petitcodiac River watershed is home to various insects and arachnids alien to New Brunswick, such as the black-footed spider, the beech scale, the white-marked tussock moth, and the mountain ash sawfly. Plant species with similar status include the Mother-of-Thyme, the Japanese barberry, the Scotch Broom, the yellow flag, and Canada bluegrass.[59] In 1937, the 37,000 year-old skeleton of a mastodon was discovered by workers near Hillsborough. It was in near perfect condition and was transported to the New Brunswick Museum in Saint John, where it has resided since.[3]

Geology

The valley which forms the Petitcodiac River was carved during the Mississippian era, over 250 million years ago. Numerous volcanic eruptions during the last glacial period affected the topography, and are believed to have been the source of the wide variety of minerals in Albert County, near the shore of the river.[3] The soil is mainly composed of red- to gray-tinted sandstone, conglomerates, and silt. Clay and sand blankets a layer of ablated moraine near the river basin. The banks contain shale and other igneous rocks in some areas as well. Cambrian and Precambrian igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and limestone can be found in the Caledonian Highlands.[27][61][62]

Albertite, a type of asphalt, was first found in Albert County in 1849 by the Canadian physicist Abraham Gesner, inventor of kerosene. Over 200,000 tonnes of the mineral were shipped to Boston within 30 years. Large deposits of gypsum found eight kilometres (five miles) from the mining site were shipped around the globe as well. The Petitcodiac River was used as the primary means for transporting the minerals.[3]

History

Colonisation (1604–1698)

A drawing of three First Nations people in front of two tipis. There are two canoes on the shore and several larger ships in the water beyond.
A Mi'kmaq tribe in Labrador

The Petitcodiac River region was first settled by the Mi'kmaq, who used the river's upstream current as part of a portage route between Shubenacadie and a winter camp at the confluence of the Anagance and North rivers.[63][52] The first Europeans arrived in early 1604, when French explorer Pierre Dugua de Mons led an expedition to Acadie (now Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) alongside cartographer Samuel de Champlain and Poutrincourt.[64][65] Dugua sailed the Bay of Fundy in hopes of locating an ideal site for a settlement, passing Advocate Harbour and the Saint John River;[66] he chose to settle on Saint Croix Island in Maine.[67] Although they did not explore the Petitcodiac region, they returned to the coasts of eastern Nova Scotia, where they founded Port Royal.[68] In 1676, Jacques Bourgeois, a colonist from the Nova Scotian settlement, settled in the area of Beaubassin (now the Tantramar Marshes). Its population grew to 129 by 1685, with 19 out of the 22 families living in the region on a permanent basis.[69] Pierre Thibodeau, also from Port Royal, founded Chipody (now Shepody, New Brunswick) near Shepody Bay in 1698.[28][70] The Petitcodiac River, the Memramcook River, and the Shepody River were often collectively referred to as "Trois-Rivières" (Three Rivers) by its inhabitants around this time (not to be confused with Trois-Rivières, Quebec).[71][72]

Acadian history (1698–1763)

See also: History of the Acadians and Expulsion of the Acadians
A drawing shows ships on a river with a town on fire on the left bank.
The St. John River Campaign, part of expulsion

The French and Indian War erupted in 1754 amid tensions between the English and the French over colonial control of the Ohio Valley.[73] Initially, the inhabitants of Acadia were uninvolved in the conflict because the French had already ceded the land to Britain under the Treaty of Utrecht (1713).[74] The Acadians were asked to take an oath declaring complete fidelity toward the British Monarch on several occasions, but they refused.[75] Initially, they were not punished for doing so.[76] A declaration of neutrality was signed in 1730 and was accepted by Nova Scotia governor Richard Philipps.[75] This earned the Acadians the nickname the "neutral French".[77] At the outbreak of war in 1754, the British again demanded unconditional oaths of fealty, perceiving the Acadians as a possible threat.[75][78] In spite of resistance led by Jean-Louis Le Loutre, representatives eventually agreed to sign,[75] but their reluctance persuaded Governor Charles Lawrence to order the Acadian population expelled from English territory.[75][79]

Approximately 1,100 Acadians living around the Petitcodiac River were affected by this decision.[80] Two hundred English troops led by Major Joseph Frye were sent to destroy the settlements of the Three Rivers, beginning with Shepody and Village-des-Blanchard (now Hillsborough).[81] French resistance commander Charles Deschamps de Boishébert, hoping to evacuate as many Acadians as possible, was unable to march the distance between Nerepis and the Shepody settlement in time, but fought at the second threatened village on August 28, 1755.[81][82] Boishébert's troops, composed of inhabitants from the area and from Shepody,[81] were able to successfully initiate a counter-attack against the threatening forces, suffering only one loss in contrast to the twenty-three English casualties.[82][83] This defeat is thought to have been the reason that the British abandoned the campaign at the Three Rivers.[83] The commander and the evacuated Acadians, whom Edward Larracey estimated to total around 700,[84] suffered a massive famine from 1756 to 1758, largely caused by the scarce resources following the battle.[82]

A slightly degraded painting of a smiling, middle-aged man with grey hair in a black armoured suit.
Charles Deschamps de Boishébert

In 1758, Joseph Broussard, also known as Beausoleil by the locals, led raids against English vessels sailing in the Bay of Fundy and the Cumberland Basin.[83] These actions provoked the British into initiating two raids of their own. The first took place in February in Shediac, where Lieutenant Colonel George Scott unsuccessfully attempted to find Boishébert. Scott lost two gunmen in a brief ambush by Boishébert when they were returning.[85] The second raid took place at the settlement of Shepody in March, where the British were shocked to find that the Acadians had already begun rebuilding their homes.[86] On June 28, Scott learned of reports that cattle were stolen outside of Fort Beausejour; the British issued an order for Captain Beloni Danks to send 75 men up the Petitcodiac River.[86] They arrived in Moncton the following night, and about 30 Acadians began firing at their vessel. However, Danks held his offensive position, and the British killed 19 Acadians, while taking nine others prisoner.[87] He and his troops continued to sail up the river the next day; they sent 60 men to burn a settlement 9.7 km (6 mi) west of Moncton. Historians now presume the area was already deserted.[88]

Acadians continued to survive in the region, overcoming the results of the raids. Scott sailed back to the region to search for Beausoleil and to weaken the Acadians before the upcoming winter season.[89] He arrived in Moncton near midnight on November 12, and the tide of the Petitcodiac River prevented him from sending more than twelve men, who came back the next morning with 16 prisoners.[90] Scott was told that the area was virtually defenceless, so he sent three parties to La Chapelle (present-day Bore Park in Moncton), Silvabro (present-day Lewisville), and Jagersome (present-day Dieppe). No deaths or prisoners were recorded by Scott, but all buildings in sight were burned, and cattle were brought back onto the vessel.[91] Additional raids by Scott between November 14 and November 17 captured a dozen Acadian prisoners, burned settlements, and uncovered Beausoleil's own schooner.[92] The crew sent an Acadian prisoner on the 17th to request the surrender of the remaining residents, but upon his return, he reported that they had all begun to flee to Cocagne, Shediac, and the settlements around the Miramichi River.[93] This prompted Scott to return to Fort Frederick in Saint John.[51]

A small portion of the Acadians migrating to the Miramichi River likely died of hypothermia during the trip due to the 1758–59-winter climate.[93] The surviving men and women joined the refugees already present, who had been persuaded by Boishébert to seek refuge there. Inadequate housing and supplies, among other reasons, led to the deterioration of the reputation of the French commander, and only 700 Acadians remained there by late 1759.[51] Meanwhile, the raiding rapidly took its toll on the residents who remained around the Three Rivers, as food supplies became scarce and it was impossible to properly reconstruct the settlement. The fall of Quebec City in September of 1759 eliminated the possibility of assistance from that area. On November 16, 1759, the 190 Acadians in the area sent a delegate to Fort Beauséjour (which had been renamed Fort Cumberland) to announce their surrender to the newly-promoted Colonel Frye. The settlements of Miramichi, Richibucto, and Bouctouche followed suit a day later, sending a delegate representing their 700 refugees to the fort as well. Frye requested and received permission from Governor Lawrence to take them in for the winter.[94] The Acadian refugees were offered land on the Isthmus of Chignecto in early 1760, but most requested their original lands around the Three Rivers, which the governor awarded.[95]

A large vessel floats beside a dock.
A reproduction of a floating vessel on the Petitcodiac River in 1910

Resettlement and modern history (1763–1968)

Following the Treaty of Paris (1763), Acadians in exile began to return to the region to resume their daily lives,[96][97] but their numbers around the Three Rivers remained under 200 by 1769.[81] Settlers from Philadelphia began to migrate to the Petitcodiac River area in 1766: the Trites and Jones families moved to present-day Moncton, while the Stieff family (now known as Steeves), originally followed suit, and later moved southeast to Hillsborough.[98] Nine families bought land up to 21 km (13 mi) west from the bend of the river, ranging from 1,718 to 2,193 acres (6.95–8.87 square kilometres) per grant.[99] In 1829, the population of Moncton reached 100, composed mainly of descendants of the original families.[100]

Moncton's shipbuilding era began in 1840 with the arrival of Stewart Russell, a shipbuilder from Hopewell.[101] Russell built the Aginora, which sailed down the Petitcodiac River to trade at the ports in Saint John and New England.[102] The ship and its crew sunk in a storm on December 24, 1850, during a trip to Boston for Christmas.[103] A ferry service on the Petitcodiac River was launched around 1841, thanks to a license obtained by Simon Outhouse.[104] The Larch, built by Stephen Binney in 1845, was another important vessel, becoming the largest to sail on the river.[105] But it was not until the arrival of Joseph Salter in 1846 that the shipbuilding boom began: a shipyard founded by Binney and Salter produced 24 vessels from 1847 to 1859, and employed almost 500 of the 1,000 inhabitants in Moncton.[106] Salter would become the first mayor of Moncton in April 1855,[107] the year the town was incorporated.[20]

In 1857, the European and North American Railway was extended to link Pointe-du-Chene to Moncton, with an eventual goal of reaching Saint John in 1860.[108] The move, according to Larracey, caused the town to become "but a station stop along a railway line".[109] This coincided with the failure of Moncton's shipbuilding industry and a population drop from a peak of 2,000 to about 500.[109] The town declared bankruptcy and was unincorporated in 1862,[110] but it later regained its status in 1875, after it became the Intercolonial Railway's headquarters for its shops in 1871.[20] While the Petitcodiac River continued to aid in the shipping of goods into the 20th century, shipbuilding ended in the 1890s.[111]

A tidal power project was hypothesised in 1924 which called for a dam to be built between Hopewell Cape and Fort Folly Point. The Petitcodiac Tidal Power Company sold shares to raise funds for the project; a series of on-site and airborne studies were conducted by the federal government, but the project fell through by 1928.[112] The river lost its role as a method of transportation around the Great Depression, when rail transport became common.[113] In addition, the Greater Moncton International Airport began to take shape in 1929, offering an airmail service from Moncton to Montreal as of December 29 of that year, which further alienated the Petitcodiac.[113][114]

A concrete and steel structure crosses the river. The water is brown on the near side of the structure, and blue on the far side
A view of the Petitcodiac River Causeway from the right
A concrete and steel structure holds a mildly busy highway crossing the river seen to the left. There are marshes and a city in the background.
A view of Route 15 from Riverview, held up by the Petitcodiac River Causeway

Causeway controversy (1968–present)

In 1968, the provincial and federal governments completed the construction of a causeway between the communities of Moncton and Riverview to provide a crossing over the river, and to keep water levels from impeding agricultural production.[6][115] Although it was equipped with a fishway, problems arose when fish were unable to cross it freely due to sedimentation build-up; some 82% of the salmon were prevented from travelling upstream by the structure.[116] The sediment accumulated in the 4.7 km (2.9 mi) of river beneath the causeway, with over 10 million cubic metres (13 million cubic yards) of silt deposited in the first three years following construction.[116] Several reports from 1969 to 1971 described its impact on the marine ecosystem, and proposals for amendments to the causeway gates were released, but no action was taken. In 1976 and 1977, reports pointed out several problems related to the gates' function due to erosion, winter ice jams, and "unsatisfactory fishway operation."[115]

It was not until 1978 that New Brunswick's Department of Transportation commissioned a study of the problems. The final report recommended three alternatives for action: to continue operation "as-is", to continue operation without the gates, or to eliminate gate leakage and amend the operation protocol. The third alternative was chosen two years later, but did not substantially improve fish migration as expected.[115] The provincial government decided to open the gates between April 15 and July 7, 1988 to allow fish to migrate up the stream. This process was repeated from September 26 to October 31 of the same year, and in the following two consecutive spring seasons during low tides. In 1991, New Brunswick's Department of Oceans and Fisheries continued to recommend the gates' opening annually from April to December. A report was commissioned in May by a provincial government committee recommending an additional seven options for the modification of the causeway; the government did not act upon any of the presented options due to the low "cost-benefit" factor.[115] More reports documented the progression of problems in the river until 1995, when the Department of Transportation agreed to open one gate from April to December, as suggested four years earlier. A project was then organized in December 1996 to begin a trial for the systematic opening of the gates during the year, but conditions could not be physically met, and the programme was cancelled in 1999.[115]

In February 2001, a report entitled the Niles Report proposed an additional four modifications to the causeway project: to either replace the fishway, open the gates during peak fish migration, open the gates permanently, or replace the entire causeway with a bridge.[117] An Environmental Impact Assessment study was commissioned in 2003 to develop and summarize these options, and on its completion in 2005, it announced the recognition of "Option 3" and "Option 4" as possible solutions. The first option had been ruled out following the evaluation of other fish passage models, which were deemed inapplicable to the river. The second, suggesting systematic gate-opening periods, was ruled out because of the inability to cater to every species' migration periods.[118][119] Option 4 was split into three sub-options, mainly to list possible bridge lengths: 170 m (190 yd), 280 m (310 yd), and 315 m (344 yd).[120] The provincial government later accepted the proposal on December 6, 2006,[121] and selected "Option 4B" on August 7, 2007, which called for a 280 m (310 yd) bridge in the place of the causeway.[122]

The project was divided into three phases, expected to cost a total of $68 million.[123][124] Phase 1 consisted of the prevention of erosion along the shorelines, improvements to the nearby drainage system, and the construction of dikes and aboiteaux; the work was carried out from July 7, 2008 to April 14, 2010.[124][125][126] Phase 2 consists of opening the gates to monitor river flow, both upstream and downstream, for two years.[124][126] Phase 3, set to commence in 2012, will consist of the bridge's development and the removal of the causeway, and is anticipated to be completed in 2015.[124][126][127] Confusion arose as to whether or not the project would be funded by the federal government. They refused, in spite of an earlier comment from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, which had hinted at a possible negotiation.[128][129] Unwilling to wait, the provincial government came forward with an initial $20 million on July 7, 2008 to begin the first phase.[125][130]

The approach of Phase 2 was met with various complaints. A biology professor at the Université de Moncton noted that $200,000–$250,000 worth of pesticide would be required to keep the mosquito population around the city of Moncton from doubling once the gates open.[131] Flood warnings were issued by the provincial Department of Supply and Services for the town of Riverview, warning that high river tides could lead to the flooding of over 30,000 m2 (3.0 hectares) of land occupied by residential housing and sport fields; however, they added that the causeway's flood gates were able to descend if required, eliminating the chances of such repercussions from a possible inundation.[132] Residents near the headpond west of the causeway criticized the project, citing the decrease in property values of about 480 homes (by approximately 30%, according to the EIA report),[133] the $68 million price tag,[134] unstable ice conditions,[135] and a lower water quality.[136] In spite of legal threats by the Lake Petitcodiac Preservation Association (LAPPA) and various residents, the causeway opened its gates on April 14, 2010, coinciding with the beginning of various studies.[123][137]

Since the opening, the river improved significantly, surpassing original expectations for the project. An AMEC engineer participating in the firm's studies, Jacques Paynter, said that the banks of the river had began widening "at a noticeable pace", with the tidal bore growing closer to its pre-1968 levels: "We were actually anticipating a fairly modest increase in height. It seems to be already exceeding what we might have expected." He noted that an estimated 40,000 gaspereau had returned to the river, and called for more studies to determine the impact of the causeway's opening.[55]

Lists

The following lists are ordered from the mouth of the river to its source.

Crossings

The river runs under ten bridges, excluding the causeway.

Route Description Coordinates Sources
Gunningsville Bridge 46°4′26.97″N 64°47′2.53″W / 46.0741583°N 64.7840361°W / 46.0741583; -64.7840361 [138]
Route 114 Petitcodiac River Causeway on Findlay Boulevard 46°3′55.29″N 64°48′23.70″W / 46.0653583°N 64.8065833°W / 46.0653583; -64.8065833 [139]
Train crossing near Parkin Street 46°1′47.43″N 65°1′8.03″W / 46.0298417°N 65.0188972°W / 46.0298417; -65.0188972 [140]
Route 112 Coverdale River Road bridge, Salisbury 46°1′18.66″N 65°2′2.31″W / 46.0218500°N 65.0339750°W / 46.0218500; -65.0339750 [141][142]
Powers Pit Road covered bridge 45°59′51.78″N 65°5′27.07″W / 45.9977167°N 65.0908528°W / 45.9977167; -65.0908528 [143]
Sanatorium Road bridge 45°58′51.52″N 65°6′34.63″W / 45.9809778°N 65.1096194°W / 45.9809778; -65.1096194 [144]
Train crossing near River Glade 45°58′26.30″N 65°7′34.48″W / 45.9739722°N 65.1262444°W / 45.9739722; -65.1262444 [14]
Route 1 Overpass for River Glade highway exit 45°58′22.99″N 65°7′49.97″W / 45.9730528°N 65.1305472°W / 45.9730528; -65.1305472 [14][15]
Plantation Road bridge 45°56′49.44″N 65°10′1.18″W / 45.9470667°N 65.1669944°W / 45.9470667; -65.1669944 [12]
Train crossing near Old Post Road 45°56′3.45″N 65°10′34.80″W / 45.9342917°N 65.1763333°W / 45.9342917; -65.1763333 [145]
Route 106 Old Post Road bridge 45°56′0.62″N 65°10′36.58″W / 45.9335056°N 65.1768278°W / 45.9335056; -65.1768278 [12][13]

Tributaries

The Petitcodiac River features ten established tributaries, which drain a total of 28 additional streams.[46]

Name Watershed area Source River bank Mouth coordinates Source
Weldon Creek 89 km2 (34 sq mi) Area near Weldon and Salem Right 45°56′59.85″N 64°39′41.59″W / 45.9499583°N 64.6615528°W / 45.9499583; -64.6615528 [146]
Fox Creek 29 km2 (11 sq mi) Area near Dieppe and Chartersville Left 46°3′17.63″N 64°42′17.50″W / 46.0548972°N 64.7048611°W / 46.0548972; -64.7048611 [147]
Mill Creek 51 km2 (20 sq mi) Town of Riverview Right 46°3′48.53″N 64°44′5.22″W / 46.0634806°N 64.7347833°W / 46.0634806; -64.7347833 [148]
Halls Creek 125 km2 (48 sq mi) City of Moncton (Sunny Brae and Tankville) Left 46°5′33.58″N 64°45′51.61″W / 46.0926611°N 64.7643361°W / 46.0926611; -64.7643361 [149]
Jonathan Creek 50 km2 (19 sq mi) City of Moncton (Centennial Park) Left 46°4′27.99″N 64°47′9.05″W / 46.0744417°N 64.7858472°W / 46.0744417; -64.7858472 [150]
Turtle Creek 192 km2 (74 sq mi) Area near Turtle Creek and Barryton Right 46°3′6.42″N 64°52′52.04″W / 46.0517833°N 64.8811222°W / 46.0517833; -64.8811222 [151]
Little River 275 km2 (106 sq mi) Area near Colpitts Settlement Right 46°1′36.27″N 65°1′37.42″W / 46.0267417°N 65.0270611°W / 46.0267417; -65.0270611 [152]
Pollett River 314 km2 (121 sq mi) Area near Kay Settlement Right 46°0′8.69″N 65°4′57.85″W / 46.0024139°N 65.0827361°W / 46.0024139; -65.0827361 [153]
Anagance River 81 km2 (31 sq mi) Hayward Brook, Holms Brook Right 45°55′41.23″N 65°11′9.46″W / 45.9281194°N 65.1859611°W / 45.9281194; -65.1859611 [154]
North River 264 km2 (102 sq mi) Area around Intervale Left 45°55′41.23″N 65°11′9.46″W / 45.9281194°N 65.1859611°W / 45.9281194; -65.1859611 [155]

See also

References

References
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  2. ^ Rayburn 1975, p. 214
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  4. ^ Pritchett, Jennifer (17 April 2010). "Recalling the heyday of the 'Chocolate River'". Telegraph-Journal. Moncton. Retrieved 5 July 2010.
  5. ^ "The Chocolate River". Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc. 2008. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
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  59. ^ a b "Invasive Species". Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance. Retrieved 16 October 2010.
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  153. ^ PWMG 2001, p. 36
  154. ^ PWMG 2001, p. 34
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Bibliography

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Petitcodiac River.

46°4′7.27″N 64°48′50.32″W / 46.0686861°N 64.8139778°W / 46.0686861; -64.8139778

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