Manusmriti

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Template:IndicTextRight Manusmṛti (written also as Manusmriti or Manusmruti) (Template:Lang-sa), also known as Mānava-Dharmaśāstra (Template:Lang-sa), is the most important and earliest metrical work of the Dharmaśāstra textual tradition of Hinduism. Generally known in English as the Laws of Manu, or Dharmic discourse to vedic Rishis, on 'way of living' of various classes of society, it was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones, an linguist, English Orientalist and judge of the British Supreme Court of Judicature in Calcutta. The text presents itself as a discourse given by the sage Manu, to a congregation of seers, or rishis, who beseech him, after the great floods, in the vedic state of 'Brahmavarta' some 10,000 years ago, to tell them on, how to face such calamities in future by organising themselves and lead an organised life with the "laws of all the social classes" (1.2). Vetern sages Manu and Bhrigu gave them a discourse in some 2685 shaloks, compilation of which is called 'Manusmriti'. Manu became the standard point of reference for all future Dharmaśāstras that followed it.

Date and Place

Different scholars have given a range of timings for creation of this text, from 1500 BCE to 500 AD on various assumptions. However, the basic fact of the time period of existence of flood-figure Manu and Bhrigu,compariot of Manu and who had his Ashram on the bank of 'Vadhusar River' in the Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta', who were the authors of Manusmriti, is ignored all together, which happens to be the period of great floods, 10,000 years ago, after last ice age having mentions in Persian book Avesta, Indian Sanskrit text Shatapatha Brahmana and now on websites. Floods had ravaged the vedic state of 'Brahmavarta', located on the confluence of two huge Vedic rivers Saraswati and Drishadwati, where the Ashrams of 'Devs' were located. The state 'Brahmavarta' is now identified on the borders of North Rajasthan and South Haryana, mainly in Shekhawati region and parts of Haryana in the districts of Mahendragarh and Jhunjhunu on the basis of images of paleochannals of these rivers from satellites, geo-morphological studies of the soils, which confirm presence of soil particals of Himalayan rocks in the ares represented by Saraswati river, and mentions of the area in Mahabharat, Rigved, Shatapatha Brahmana, Manusmriti and various Puranas. As per epic 'Mahabharat' Bhrigu Rishi had his Ashram at 'Deepotsak' on 'Vadhusar' river, and his son Chyavana, on Dhosi Hill a tributory of 'Drishadwati' river, in the state of 'Brahmavarta'. As per Skanda Purana, Bhrigu Rishi had migrated to 'Bharuch', located on Narmada river later on. Even Archeological findings near Narmada river are dated 8500 years old and said to be belonging to post Bhrigu era, confirming that Bhrigu and Manu had existed some 10,000 years ago, and their creation 'Manusmriti' is that old.

The identity of place 'Brahmavarta', the Vedic state where, sages Manu and Bhrigu had given the discourse, and Manusmriti was compiled is also confirmed by the fact that the nomenclature used to describe, animals, birds, crops, trees, plants, house utilities, activities of people, geographical conditions etc. in 'Manusmriti' is still in use in the area, and these things exist physically also. Khetri Copper Mines and Dhosi Hill are important landmarks in 'Brahmavarta'. The Saraswati river, which had flown at the time of floods, made the western border of Brahmavarta state, while northern border was formed by Drishadwati river which had flown in along the inner side of Aravali hill from the pot of 'Brahma' called Pushkar lake near Ajmer in Rajasthan. Because of seismic activities in Aravali ranges 7–8000 years ago, Monsoon water from Ajmer district stopped flowing in to Drishadwati and migrated to Chambal river, however water from part of Jaipur, Sikar and Alwar districts in Rajasthan, still flows in the old Drishadwati river, presently known as 'Sahbi river' and finally goes in to Yamuna river near Delhi.

Context

Great floods which occurred after rapid melting of Himalayan glaciers at the end of last ice age, and higher rainfalls in Aravalli ranges, were devastating for habitants of Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta' and surrounding areas. Senior Rishis of the area gathered and decided to approach the oldest Rishi Manu, who had escaped the floods and is said to be 400 years old at that time, to advise the conference, from his memory (in Sanskrit and Hindi Smriti) and experiences on 'how to face such calamities in future and lead a peaceful and organised life'. Thus, the 2685 shaloks discoursed by Manu and Bhrigu to the conference on various aspects came to be known as 'Manusmriti', which some call 'Laws of Manu', while others consider it to be an 'advisory' only. This conference/congregation was also the beginning of organised living by Vedic people or formal launching of 'Vedic Snatan Dharma'

The text shows the obvious influence of previous Dharmasutras and Arthasastric work. These eighteen Titles of Law or Grounds for Litigation make up more than one fifth of the work and deal primarily with matters of the king, state, and judicial procedure. Though most scholars had previously considered the text a composite put together over a long period of time, Olivelle has recently argued that the complex and consistent structure of the text suggests a single author. However, no details of this eponymous author's life are known, though it is likely that he belonged to a conservative Brahmin caste somewhere in Northern India.

A historical opinion generally dates composition of the text any time between 200 BCE and 200 CE. After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga empires, there was a period of uncertainty that led to renewed interest in traditional social norms. In Thapar's view, "The severity of the Dharma-shastras was doubtless a commentary arising from the insecurity of the orthodox in an age of flux."

The dharma class of texts were noteworthy also because they did not depend on the authority of particular Vedic schools, becoming the starting point of an independent tradition that emphasised dharma itself and not its Vedic origins.

Structure

The original treatise consisted of one thousand chapters of law, polity, and pleasure given by Brahmā. His son, Manu, learns these lessons and proceeds to teach his own students, including Bhrigu. Bhrigu then relays this information in the Manu Smriti, to an audience of a set of Rishis.

This original narrative was subdivided later into twelve chapters. There is debate over the effects of this division on the underlying, holistic manner in which the original treatise was written. The book is written in simple verse as opposed to the metrical verse of the preceding dharmasutras. Manu also introduced a unique "transitional verse" which segued the end of one subject and the beginning of the next.

The treatise is written with a frame story, in which a dialogue takes place between Manu's disciple, Bhrigu, and an audience of his own students. The story begins with Manu himself detailing the creation of the world and the society within it, structured around four social classes. Bhrigu takes over for the remainder of the work, teaching the details of the rest of Manu's teachings. The audience reappears twice more, asking first about how Brahmins can be subjected to death, and second to ask the effects of action.

Table of Contents

This Table of Contents comes from Olivelle's translation of the Manu Smriti and provides the transitional verses between each subject:

1. Origin of the World (1.1–119)

There are no transitional verses for this section

2. Sources of the Law (2.1–24)

"I have described to you above succinctly the source of the Law, as also the origin of this whole world. Learn now the Laws of the social classes." (2.25)

3. Dharma of the Four Social Classes (2.25–11.266)

• 3.1 Rules Relating to Law (2.25–10.131)

• 3.1.1 Rules of Action in Normal Times (2.26–9.336)

• 3.1.1.1 Fourfold Dharma of a Brahmin (2.26–6.97)

"I have explained to you above the fourfold Law of Brahmins, a Law that is holy and brings imperishable rewards after death. Listen now to the Law of kings." (6.97)

• 3.1.1.2 Rules of Action for a King (7.1–9.325)

"I have described above in its entirety the eternal rules of action for the king. What follows, one should understand, are the rules of action for the Vaiśyas and Śūdras in their proper order." (9.325)

• 3.1.1.3 Rules of Action for Vaiśyas and Śūdras (9.325-36)

"I have described above the splendid rules of action for the social classes outside times of adversity. Listen now to the rules for them in the proper order for times of adversity." (9.336)

• 3.1.2 Rules of Action in Times of Adversity (10.1–129)

"I have described above the entire set of rules pertaining to the Law of the four classes. Next, I will explain the splendid rules pertaining to penance." (10.131)

• 3.2 Rules Relating to Penance (11.1–265)

"You have described this Law for the four classes in its entirety, O Sinless One! Teach us accurately the ultimate consummation of the fruits of actions." (12.1)

Salient features of Manusmriti

Knowledge is important than Birth in a clan

Manusmriti assigned the various roles to four Varnas on the basis of their knowledge of Vedic texts. There is no 'ordinance' like classification by birth. The concept of dwija and shudra, at birth is not rigid or compartmentalised. It is fluid and flexible. Yajurved says that at birth all are shudras, but the true birth or second birth has to be achieved through education. A Shudra could qualify to a higher class by remaining clean, polite behaviour and in the company of other three Varnas. while a Brahmin would be classified as a Shudra, even if he consumes liquer once or he is uneducated

Knowers of Vedic texts, the 'Brahmins' were given the most important status for their enormous contributions to Dharm, Earth and Environment. Dharmic duties of Brahmins are defined as reading and gaining knowledge, teaching to others, performing Yagynas and rituals, give and accept donations Kshatriyas are told to provide security to people, give donations, hold yagynas, study and not to involve in discussions. while that of Vaishyas were, animal husbandry, give donations, hold yagynas, to study, do business, charge interest and agriculture,. Shudras, who were not educated at all, were given the task to serve the other three. vernas This division of community was strictly on 'knowledge' basis. Even among Brahmins, those who had higher and deeper knowledge of Vedas were considered superior.

Lower Classes could Upgrade

There are several examples from history, that prominent Saints were born in lower varnas but qualified to higher vernas and were duly respected by all. Rishi Valmiki who was born in lower verna got education and qualified to become a religious writer and wrote, Valmiki Ramayana which is a revered document even today. Similarly, Aitareya Rishi was son of a Daasa or criminal, but became a Brahmin of highest order and wrote one of classics Aitareya Brahmana and Aitareyopanishad. Aitareya Brahman is considered critical to understand Rigveda.

There are historical migration of verna, in ancient history. Satyakaam Jaabal was son of a prostitute but qualified later on to become a Brahman. Allush Rishi was son of a 'Daasi', gambler and of low character but he did research on 'Rigveda' and made several discoveries. Not only was he invited by Rishis but also made an Acharya

Prishad who was son of king Daksh, because of his activities became a Shudra, had to do tapasya and achieve salvation after repenting. Vidur, who was son of a servant became a Brahmin and a prominent minister in Hastinapur empire. Similarly, Vatsa became a Rishi though born to a Shudra. Vishnu Puran says that Guru of Pandavs, Shaunak, was born in a Kshatriya family but bacame a Brahman. Raavan who was born a Brahman to Pulatsaya Rishi, is considered a 'Raakshash'.

Some other features of Varn classification are as follows:

1. Division of society into four varnas. Out of these only the first three, namely, Brahmins, Kshatriya and Vaishya, are collectively known as dwija (twice-born) are entitled to upanayan and the study of the Vedas. Shudras as well as women of dwija varnas, who had no use of learning Vedas because of kind of their responsibilities, were advised not to study of Vedas. However, Shudras could qualify to upper class by remaining clean, with observing polite behaviour and company of other three varnas.

2. Assigning different duties and occupations for different varnas. According to Manusmriti, if a person of lower caste desires to adopt the occupation of a higher caste, he'll have to qualify for it by acquiring knowlwdge of Vedas.

3. Treating Brahmins as superior, because they had all the knowledge and Shudras, who had no knowledge of Vedas as inferior to them.

4. Treating women as unequal. Women, that is, even women belonging to Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya varna are not entitled to upanayan and the study of the Vedas. For them, marriage is equivalent to upanayan and service of their husbands is equivalent to the study of the Vedas in the gurukul. Even if the husband is morally degraded, engaged in an affair with another woman and is devoid of knowledge and other qualities, the wife must treat him like a god. Besides, women are not considered fit for being free and independent. They are to be protected in their childhood by father, in youth by husband and in old age by son. They should never be allowed by their guardians to act independently. A woman must never do anything even inside her home without the consent of her father, husband and son respectively. She must remain in control of her father in childhood, of husband in youth and of son after the death of her husband.

5. In fact, this system of graded inequality seems to be the very essence of the varna-vyavastha. Whether it is the choice of names, nor the manner of greeting, or the mode of entertaining guests, or the method of administering oath in the court, or the process of taking out the funeral procession, at each and every step in life, from birth to death, this system of graded inequality is to be applied and observed.

6. Prohibiting inter-marriage between different varnas. According to Manusmriti, a dwija ought to marry a woman of his own varna. A woman of the same varna is considered best for the first marriage.

7. Manu seems to be disapproving of pratiloma relationship more than the anuloma relationship, because he describes Chandalas as the lowest of the low castes.

8. Granting divine and religious sanction to varna-vyavastha. Manu gives divine and religious sanction to the varna-vyavastha by claiming divine origin for the varnas as well as for the Manusmriti and demanding unquestioning obedience of it.

9. Many Indians reject this varna-vyavastha which was advised 10,000 years ago, because it is irrational in present times as society has become cosmopolitan. The perceived unjust and undemocratic advices, are being opposed by some to be changed to democratic and attached with human values of liberty, equality and fraternity.

Commentaries on Manu

There have been numerous commentaries written on the Manu Smṛti. Some of the major commentaries are listed below:

Bhāruci

Bhāruci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smṛti. Kane places him in the late 10th or early 11th century, Olivelle places him in the 8th century, and Derrett places him between 600–650 CE. From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early 7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. The surviving portion of Bhāruci's commentary that we have today deals mostly with the duties of the king and whether or not the king can be a source of dharma.

Medhātithi

Medhātithi is one of the most famous commentators on the Manu Smṛti, and there is some debate regarding the location in which he was writing, but scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat tend to believe he was from Kashmir or the area around Kashmir. The exact date that Medhātithi was writing is also unclear, and he has been placed anywhere between 820CE and 1050CE.

Economic ideas

The economic ideas found in Manusmriti have been traced by Ratan Lal Basu.

Reviews and Comments

Manu Smriti is one of the most commented scriptures of Hinduism, having been discussed by colonial scholars, modern liberals, Hindu reformists, Dalit advocates, feminists, Marxists and certain groups of traditional Hindus, namely Smartas. Much of its criticism stems from its deemed, unknown authority, as some believe the text to be authoritative, though it was only an advisory. There is also debate over whether the text has suffered from later interpolations of verses. The new findings on the state of 'Brahmavarta' at the junction of Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers and abode of Vedic Rishis like Bhrigu and Manu are giving credence to the timing of its writing, flood time 10,000 years ago

The Manu Smriti was one of the first Sanskrit texts studied by the British. It was first translated into English by the founder of indology, Sir William Jones. His version was published in 1794. British administrative requirements encouraged their interest in the Dharmashastras, which they believed to be legal codes. In fact, these were not codes of law but norms related to social obligations and ritual requirements. According to Avari:

The text was not followed or acclaimed by the vast majority of Indians in their history; it came to the world's attention through a late eighteenth-century translation by Sir William Jones, who mistakenly exaggerated both its antiquity and its importance. Today many of its ideas are popularised as the golden norm of classical Hindu law by Hindu universalists. They are, however, anathema to some modern thinkers and particularly feminists.

The law in Manu Smriti also appears to be positive towards the Brahmin (priest) caste in terms of concessions made in fines and punishments. The stance of the Manu Smriti about women has also been discussed. While certain verses such as (III – 55, 56, 57, 59, 62) glorify the position of women, other verses (IX – 3, 17) seem to attack the position and freedom women have. The education of women is also discussed in the text. Certain interpretations of Verse (IX – 18) claim that it discourages women from reading Vedic scriptures. Verse (II – 240), however, allows women to read Vedic scriptures. Similar contradictory phrases are encountered in relation to child marriage in verses (IX – 94) and (IX – 90).

Woman is to make her body beautiful by adorning it with clothes and ornaments; that the man may be attracted by her. Woman is to be so worshipped that she be made a fitting decoration for the man’s bedroom. This is an advise by Manu. Manu has nothing to say of the rights of woman.

The laws of Manusmrithi consider woman to be an individual bound by the family relationships, with no rights of her own. The verses of the fifth chapter starting from 147 to 169 are all about the woman. Even if she were to become a widow in her youth, she is not to marry again, though now all Varnas go for re-marriages. Even if her husband indulges in adultery, she is still to consider him on equal footing with God. Woman is entitled to share in the wealth of the family. The wages for her labour will be half that of the man. So goes the laws of Manusmrithi concerning woman.

In his book Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India, Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar opined that Manu Smriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism. However, historian Romila Thapar considers these claims to be exaggerations. She writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra. Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas" Hinduism does not evangelize.

However, not all Hindus agree with the criticisms of the text, or the assertion that the Manu Smriti is authoritative. Some prominent Hindu figures, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati and A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami, hold the text to be authentic and authoritative. Other admirers of the text have included Annie Besant, P.D. Ouspensky, Pandurang Shastri Athavale and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Friedrich Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti. "It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the highest art of living" Contra Nietzsche, Nipissing University philosophy professor W.A. Borody has coined the phrase "sublimation-transmogrification logic" to describe the underlying 'state of mind' lying behind the ethical teaching of the Manu Smrti—a 'state of mind' that would have found Nietzsche's concept of the Dionysian Übermensch abhorrent, and a 'state of mind' or 'voice' that has always been radically contested within India's various philosophical and religious traditions.

References

Sources

• Translation by G. Bühler (1886). Sacred Books of the East: The Laws of Manus (Vol. XXV). Oxford. Available online as The Laws of Manu
• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Hopkins, Thomas J. (1971). The Hindu Religious Tradition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Kulke, Hermann (1986). A History of India. New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-88029-577-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Olivelle, Patrick (2005). Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517146-2. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Olivelle, Patrick (2004). The Law Code of Manu. New York: OUP. ISBN 0-19-280271-2. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Olivelle, Patrick (to be published). "Dharmasastra: A Literary History". In Lubin, Timothy; Krishnan, Jayanth; and Davis, Jr., Donald R. (ed.). Law and Hinduism: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link)
• Thapar, Romila (2002). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24225-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "The Laws of Manu" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.