Black stork

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This article is about the bird. For the 1917 film, see The Black Stork. For the Pakistani special operations force, see Special Services Group.

Black stork
In Kruger National Park, South Africa
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Ciconiiformes
Family:
Ciconiidae
Genus:
Ciconia
Species:
C. nigra
Binomial name
Ciconia nigra
Range of C. nigra
  Breeding range
  Year-round range
  Wintering range

The black stork (Ciconia nigra) is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. Its plumage is mainly black, with white underparts. Adults have long red legs and long pointed red beaks, measuring on average 95–100 cm (37–39 in) from beak tip to end of tail with a 145–155 cm (4.76–5.09 ft) wingspan. It is a widespread, but uncommon, species that breeds in the warmer parts of Europe (predominantly in central and eastern regions), across temperate Asia and Southern Africa. It is a shy and wary species, unlike the closely related white stork. It is seen in pairs or small flocks, usually in marshy areas, rivers or inland waters. The black stork feeds on amphibians, small fish and insects.

Black storks prefer to be solitary, away from any disturbance. They usually construct nests on large boulders, under overhanging ledges or on large forest trees—a wide variety of both deciduous and evergreen—which can be seen from long distances. The black stork is a migratory bird, and occurs throughout the Asian and African tropics during winter. The female lays two to five white shelled eggs having greyish hue. The female usually kills one of its fledglings, generally the weakest, in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings.

The black stork is considered to be a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. This is because of the wide range, big population and low rate of decline, which are well beyond the threshold to consider them as vulnerable. It is also covered under the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Various conservation measures have been taken for the black storks, including the Conservation Action Plan for African black storks by Wetlands International, which focuses on the wintering conditions of the birds which breed in Europe.

Juvenile black stork in a field in the Netherlands

Taxonomy and etymology

English naturalist Francis Willughby wrote about the white stork in the 17th century, having seen one in Frankfurt, naming it Ciconia nigra.[2] It was one of the many species originally described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Ardea nigra.[3] It was moved to the new genus Ciconia by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson two years later.[4] Both the genus and the specific names are Latin; Ciconia is "stork" and niger/-gra is "black".[5] The word stork is derived from the Old English word storc, thought to be related to the Old High German storah, meaning "stork", and the Old English stearc, meaning "stiff".[6]

The stork family contains several genera in three major groups: the open-billed and wood storks (Mycteria and Anastomus), the giant storks (Ephippiorhynchus, Jabiru and Leptoptilos) and the "typical storks", Ciconia. The typical storks include the white stork and six other extant species, which are characterised by straight bills and mainly black and white plumage.[7] Within the genus Ciconia, the black stork's closest relatives are the other European species, the white stork and its former subspecies, the black-billed Oriental white stork of east Asia.[8] The black stork was found to be basal in analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA by Beth Slikas in 1997.[9] Fossil remains have been recovered from Miocene beds Rusinga and Maboko Islands in Kenya, which are indistinguishable from the white and black storks.[10]

Description

Adult in a Dutch zoo

Slightly smaller than the white stork, the black stork is a large bird, measuring 95–100 cm (37–39 in) in length with a 145–155 cm (4.76–5.09 ft) wingspan,[11] and weighing around 3 kg (6.6 lb).[12] It can stand as tall as 102 cm (40 in).[13] Like all storks, it has long legs, a long neck and a long, straight, pointed beak.[11] The plumage is black with a purplish green sheen, except for the white lower breast, belly, armpits, axillaries and undertail coverts.[11][14] The breast feathers are long and shaggy,[11] forming a ruff which is used in some courtship displays.[15] The black stork has brown iris, and the bare skin around its eyes.[11][16] Mostly similar to the Adbim's stork in appearance, it differs by having bright red bill, legs and feet, and black rump and lower back.[14][17] The sexes are identical in appearance, except that males are larger than females on average.[11]

The juvenile resembles the adult in plumage pattern, but the areas corresponding to the adult black feathers are browner and less glossy. The scapulars, wing and upper tail coverts have pale tips. The legs, bill and bare skin around the eyes are greyish green.[11] It may be confused with the juvenile yellow-billed stork, but the latter has paler wings and mantle, longer bill and white under the wings.[18] The black stork walks slowly and steadily on the ground. Like all storks, it flies with its neck outstretched.[19] It has a rasping call, and rarely indulges in mutual bill-clattering when adults meet at the nest.[20] Displaying males produce a long series of wheezy raptor-like squealing calls rising to a crescendo and then falling.[21]

Distribution and habitat

During the summer, the black stork is found from Eastern Asia (Siberia and northern China) west to Central Europe, reaching Estonia in the north, Poland, Lower Saxony and Bavaria in Germany, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy and Greece in the south, with an outlying population in Spain and Portugal.[11] It is not abundant in these western parts of its distribution, but more densely inhabit the eastern Transcaucasus.[11] A population of black storks is resident year-round in Southern Africa. It winters into the Indian subcontinent and Africa.[16]

The black stork is a rare vagrant to the British Isles, turning up in the warmer months—particularly in Spring—generally in the south and east. Sightings have become more common since the 1970s as its breeding range moves northwards.[22] It has been recorded in Scotland six times between 1946 and 1983, including from Shetland, Orkney and the Highlands, as well as the Scottish Borders (Peebles).[23]

After disappearing from Belgium before the onset of the 20th century, it has returned to breed in the Belgian Ardennes, Luxembourg and Burgundy, France, by 2000.[24] It is an occasional visitor to Sri Lanka,[25] and was first recorded in western Myanmar in 1998.[26]

Previously a regular winter visitor to the Mai Po Marshes, it is now seldom seen there, and appears to be in decline in China overall.[16] In the Korean Peninsula, the black stork is a uncommon summer visitor, no longer breeding in the south since 1966. Birds have been seen in the northeast but it is not known if they breed there. Similarly it has been seen in the summer in Afghanistan, but is unknown if it breeds there.[27]

The black stork prefers more wooded areas than the better known white stork, and breeds in large marshy wetlands with interspersed coniferous or broadleaved woodlands, but also inhabits hills and mountains with sufficient networks of creeks.[11] It usually inhabits ponds, rivers, edges of lakes, estuaries and other freshwater wetlands.[16] The black stork does inhabit more agricultural areas in the Caspian lowlands, but even here it avoids close contact with people.[11] It avoids human contact and forms small flocks especially during winter.[16]

Migration

Red Line: Migration Border
Orange Arrow: Western Migration
Yellow Arrow: Eastern Migration
Blue: Winter Location
Black stork in flight

The black stork is a migrant, wintering in tropical Africa and Asia, although certain populations of black storks are sedentary or dispersive.[27] A broad-winged soaring bird, the black stork is assisted by thermals of hot air for long distance flight, although are less dependent on them than the white stork.[28][29] Since thermals only form over land, storks, together with large raptors,[30] must cross the Mediterranean at the narrowest points, and many black storks can be seen going through the Bosphorus.[29][27]

It migrates from early August to October, with a major exodus in September.[27] Some of the Iberian populations, and also those in southern Africa, are essentially non-migratory, though they may wander freely in the non-breeding areas.[27] Most of the black storks that summer in eastern European, migrate to Africa, while those which summer in western Asia, migrate to northern and northeastern India.[27] Those summering further east in eastern Russia and China winter mainly in southern China, although occasionally further south, in Myanmar, northern Thailand, Hong Kong and Laos.[27] About 10% of the western storks choose the passage Sicily – Cap Bon, Tunisia, which might be due to the frequent flapping flights compared to those of the white storks.[31][30] The common route goes over the Rock of Gibraltar of over the Bay of Gibraltar, generally on a southwesterly track that takes them to the central part of the Straight, from where they reach Morocco.[32][30] Many birds fly around the Sahara next to the coast.[32] Most birds winter in the wetlands of Nigeria or Mali. The eastern birds take the route Bosphorus–Sinai–Nile to Africa.[27]

Behavior

Feeding

Black stork foraging
Egg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden
Nesting pair, Monfrague National Park, Extremadura, Spain

The black stork mainly eats fish, although it may feed on amphibians, insects, small reptiles, snails, crabs, mammals and birds.[33] Its insect diet primarily includes water beetles and their larvae, and earthworms.[34][35] It also forages on newts, shrews, small rodents and molusks.[34][35] Among the fish species, the diet mostly constitutes mostly small cyprinids, pikes, roaches, eels, budds, perches, burbots, sicklebacks and muddy loaches (Misgurnus and Cobitis).[35] It has been observed, although rarely, that the black stork also forages with both wings raised in an open canopy.[27]

Breeding

The black stork nests in Central Europe in April to May, and is a winter visitor to northern India, Nepal and east to Myanmar. The nest is large, constructed by sticks and twigs, and sometimes also large branches, and are at an elevation of 4–25 m (13–82 ft).[33][27] Away from any disturbances, the black stork prefers to construct its nest in forest trees with large canopies where the nest can be built far from the main trunk.[33][27] For the most part, deciduous trees are chosen for nesting sites, though conifers are used as well.[11] A 2003 field study in Estonia found that the black stork preferred oak (Quercus robur), European aspen (Populus tremula), and to a lesser extent Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris, and ignored Norway spruce (Picea abies), in part due to the canopy structure of the trees. Trees with nests averaged around 25.6 ± 5.2 m high and had a diameter at breast height of 66 ± 20 cm. Furthermore, 90% of the trees chosen were at least 80 years old, highlighting the importance of conserving old-growth forests.[36]

In steeply mountainous areas such as parts of Spain, South Africa and the Carpathian Mountains it nests on cliffs, on large boulders, in caves and under overhanging ledges.[11] The black stork nests solitarily, which are usually at least 1 km (0.6 mi) apart, where they are numerous.[27] Although newly constructed nests may be significantly smaller, older nests can be 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in diameter. In southern Africa, the black stork may occupy the nests of other bird species such as hamerkop (Scopus umbretta) or Verreaux's eagle (Aquila verreauxi) and commonly reuse them in successive years.[33] They are repaired with earth and grass, and lined with leaves, moss, grass, animal-fur, paper, clay and rags.[27][34]

The eggs are usually laid in late April.[34] In a clutch, there are two to five, or rarely even six large oval eggs, with white shells having a greyish hue, which get soiled during incubation.[27] They can be 64–70 mm (2.5–2.8 in) long and 50–53 mm (2.0–2.1 in) wide, averaging about 68 mm (2.7 in) in length and 52 mm (2.0 in) in width.[37] The eggs are laid with an interval of two days.[27] Hatching is asynchronous,[27] and takes place at the end of May.[34] Incubation takes 32 to 38 days, with both sexes sharing duties, which commenses after the first or second egg is laid.[27] The young start flying by the end of July.[34] Fledging takes 60 to 71 days, after which the young joins the adults at their feeding grounds.[27] However, for another 2 weeks, the young continue to return to the nest, to be fed and to roost at night.[27]

Until the nestlings are 2 to 3 weeks old, at least one adult remains in the nest to protect the eggs or the young. Both parents feed the young by regurgitating onto the floor of the nest.[27] Black stork parents have been known to kill one of their fledglings, generally the weakest, in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings. Stork nestlings do not attack each other, and their parents' method of feeding them (disgorging large amounts of food at once) means that stronger siblings cannot outcompete weaker ones for food directly, hence parental infanticide is an efficient way of reducing brood size. This behavior has only rarely been observed in the species, although the shyness of the species and difficulties in studying its nesting habits mean that it might not be an uncommon phenomenon.[38]

Parasites

Black storks host more than 12 species of helminth, with Cathaemasia hians and Dicheilonema ciconiae reported to be the most dominant. Juvenile black storks host fewer helminth species overall, but carry higher parasite loads than adults do.[39]

Status and conservation

Since 1998, the black stork has been rated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This is because it has a large range—more than 20,000 km2 (7700 mi2)—and because its population is thought not to have declined by 30% over ten years or three generations and thus is not a rapid enough decline to warrant a vulnerable rating. However, the state of the population overall is not known,[33] and although it is widespread, it is not abundant anywhere.[27] It is protected by the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).[33] Black stork numbers have declined for many years in western Europe, and the species has already been extirpated from Scandinavia.[27] Its habitat is changing rapidly in much of eastern Europe and Asia.[27] Various conservation measures have been taken, including Wetlands International's Conservation Action Plan for African black storks, which focuses on improving the wintering conditions of the birds which breed in Europe.[33]

Hunters threaten the black stork in some countries of southern Europe and Asia,[33] such as Pakistan, and breeding populations may have been eliminated there.[27] The black stork vanished from the Ticino River valley in northern Italy, with hunting a likely contributor. In 2005, black storks were released into the Parco Lombardo del Ticino in an attempt to re-establish the species there.[24]

References

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  3. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae: (Laurentii Salvii). p. 142.
  4. ^ Brisson, Mathurin Jacques (1760). Ornithologie; ou, Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, espéces & leurs variétés. &c Vol-ume 1 (in French). Paris: C.J.B. Bauche. p. 48. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Lewis, Charlton Thomas; Kingery, Hugh Macmaster (1918). An Elementary Latin Dictionary. New York: American Book Company. p. 126. ISBN 0-19-910205-8.
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  34. ^ a b c d e f Pottetz, Liselotte; Barowski, Anatol (2016-12-17). Black Stork - White Shadow (in German). EDITION digital. p. 3. ISBN 9783956557491.
  35. ^ a b c Sidorovich, Vadim (2016-07-18). Naliboki Forest: Wild animals. CHATYRY CHVERCI. pp. 494–498. ISBN 9789855810354.
  36. ^ Lõhmus, Asko; Sellis, Urmas (2003). "Nest trees - a limiting factor for the Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) population in Estonia" (PDF). Aves (1–4): 84–91.
  37. ^ Dresser, Henry Eeles (1881). A History of the Birds of Europe: Including All the Species Inhabiting the Western Palaeactic Region. author. p. 8.
  38. ^ Zielinski, Piotr (2002). "Brood reduction and parental infanticide — are the White Stork Ciconia ciconia and the Black Stork C. nigra exceptional?" (PDF). Acta Ornithologica. 37 (2): 113–119. doi:10.3161/068.037.0207. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
  39. ^ Sitko, J.; Heneberg, P. (2015). "Composition, structure and pattern of helminth assemblages associated with central European storks (Ciconiidae)". Parasitology International. 64: 130–134. doi:10.1016/j.parint.2014.11.004.

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External links

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