Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)[5] is an enzyme attached to the cell membranes of cells in the lungs, arteries, heart, kidney, and intestines.[6][7] ACE2 lowers blood pressure by catalysing the hydrolysis of angiotensin II (a vasoconstrictor peptide) into angiotensin (1–7) (a vasodilator).[8][9][10] ACE2 counters the activity of the related angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) by reducing the amount of angiotensin-II and increasing Ang(1-7)[11] making it a promising drug target for treating cardiovascular diseases.[12][13]
ACE2 also serves as the entry point into cells for some coronaviruses, including HCoV-NL63, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2.[5] The human version of the enzyme is often referred to as hACE2.[14]
Structure
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 | |||||||||
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Identifiers | |||||||||
EC no. | 3.4.17.23 | ||||||||
Databases | |||||||||
IntEnz | IntEnz view | ||||||||
BRENDA | BRENDA entry | ||||||||
ExPASy | NiceZyme view | ||||||||
KEGG | KEGG entry | ||||||||
MetaCyc | metabolic pathway | ||||||||
PRIAM | profile | ||||||||
PDB structures | RCSB PDB PDBe PDBsum | ||||||||
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Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a zinc containing metalloenzyme located on the surface of endothelial and other cells.[15] ACE2 protein contains an N-terminal peptidase M2 domain and a C-terminal collectrin renal amino acid transporter domain.[15]
ACE2 is a single-pass type I membrane protein, with its enzymatically active domain exposed on the surface of cells in lungs and other tissues.[6] The extracellular domain of ACE2 is cleaved from the transmembrane domain by another enzyme known as sheddase, and the resulting soluble protein is released into the blood stream and ultimately excreted into urine.[16][17]
Location within the body
ACE2 is present in most organs: ACE2 is attached to the cell membrane of mainly lung type II alveolar cells, enterocytes of the small intestine, arterial and venous endothelial cells and arterial smooth muscle cells in most organs. ACE2 mRNA expression is also found in the cerebral cortex, striatum, hypothalamus, and brainstem.[18] The expression of ACE2 in cortical neurons and glia make them susceptible to a SARS-CoV-2 attack, which was the possible basis of anosmia and incidences of neurological deficits seen in COVID-19.[19] As anosmia and dysgeusia are seen early in many COVID-19 patients, it was suggested to be considered to be a heralding clue in COVID-19,[20] which subsequently was declared as "significant symptoms" in COVID-19 by the American Academy of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery.[21]
Function
The primary function of ACE2 is to act as a counterbalance to ACE. ACE cleaves angiotensin I hormone into the vasoconstricting angiotensin II. ACE2 in turn cleaves the carboxyl-terminal amino acid phenylalanine from angiotensin II (Asp-Arg-Val-Tyr-Ile-His-Pro-Phe) and hydrolyses it into the vasodilator angiotensin (1-7), (H-Asp-Arg-Val-Tyr-Ile-His-Pro-OH).[15] ACE2 can also cleave a number of other peptides including [des-Arg9]-bradykinin, apelin, neurotensin, dynorphin A, and ghrelin.[15] ACE2 also regulates the membrane trafficking of the neutral amino acid transporter SLC6A19 and has been implicated in Hartnup's disease.[22]
Coronavirus entry point
As a transmembrane protein, ACE2 serves as the main entry point into cells for some coronaviruses, including HCoV-NL63,[5] SARS-CoV (the virus that causes SARS),[23][24][25] and SARS-CoV-2[26] (the virus that causes COVID-19).[27][28][29] More specifically, the binding of the spike S1 protein of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 to the enzymatic domain of ACE2 on the surface of cells results in endocytosis and translocation of both the virus and the enzyme into endosomes located within cells.[30][31] This entry process also requires priming of the S protein by the host serine protease TMPRSS2, the inhibition of which is under current investigation as a potential therapeutic.[32] It has also been shown that disruption of S-protein glycosylation significantly impairs viral entry, indicating an importance of glycan-protein interactions in the process.[33]
This has led some to hypothesize that decreasing the levels of ACE2, in cells, might help in fighting the infection. On the other hand, ACE2 has been shown to have a protective effect against virus-induced lung injury by increasing the production of the vasodilator angiotensin 1–7.[34] Furthermore, according to studies conducted on mice, the interaction of the spike protein of the coronavirus with ACE2 induces a drop in the levels of ACE2 in cells through internalization and degradation of the protein and hence may contribute to lung damage.[34][35]
Both ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) that are used to treat high blood pressure have been shown in rodent studies to upregulate ACE2 expression hence may affect the severity of coronavirus infections.[36][37] A systematic review and meta-analysis published on July 11, 2012, found that "use of ACE inhibitors was associated with a significant 34% reduction in risk of pneumonia compared with controls." Moreover, "the risk of pneumonia was also reduced in patients treated with ACE inhibitors who were at higher risk of pneumonia, in particular those with stroke and heart failure. Use of ACE inhibitors was also associated with a reduction in pneumonia related mortality, although the results were less robust than for overall risk of pneumonia."[38] An April 2020 study of patients hospitalized in Hubei Province in China found a death rate of 3.7% for hospitalized patients who had hypertension and were on Angiotensin Converting Enzyme inhibitors or Angiotensin Receptor Blockers versus 9.8% for hospitalized patients with hypertension not on such drugs, suggesting that the drugs are not harmful and may help against the coronavirus.[39]
Despite lack of conclusive evidence, some have advocated for and others for the cessation of ACE inhibitor or ARB treatment in COVID-19 patients with hypertension.[40] However, multiple professional societies and regulatory bodies have recommended continuing standard ACE inhibitor and ARB therapy.[41][42][43]
An in vitro study focused on the early stages of infection found that clinical grade human recombinant soluble ACE2 (hrsACE2) reduced SARS-CoV-2 recovery from vero cells by a factor of 1,000-5,000.[44]
Recombinant human ACE2
Recombinant human ACE2 (rhACE2) is surmised to be a novel therapy for acute lung injury, and appeared to improve pulmonary blood flow and oxygen saturation in piglets with a lipopolysaccharide-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome.[45] The half-life of rhACE2 in human beings is about 10 hours and the onset of action is 30 minutes in addition to the course of effect (duration) of 24 hours.[45] Several findings suggest that rhACE2 may be a promising drug for those with intolerance to classic renin-angiotensin system inhibitors (RAS inhibitors) or in diseases where circulating angiotensin II is elevated.[45]
Infused rhACE2 has been evaluated in clinical trials for the treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome.[46]
See also
References
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The discovery of ACE2 and its role in counteracting the effect of Ang-II through Ang(1-7) formation...An imbalance in ACE2/Ang-(1–7) and ACE/Ang-II axes is critical in the development of cardiovascular diseases. The central role of ACE2, therefore, appears to counter ACE activity by reducing Ang-II bioavailability and increasing Ang(1-7) formation...The use of RAS-modulating agents and molecules as novel therapeutic agents in hypertension and cardiovascular therapeutic research.
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Studies with recombinant human ACE2 (rhACE2) have shown beneficial cardiac effects [18, 36]. rhACE2 has anti-fibrotic properties and can attenuate effect on systolic and diastolic dysfunction, presumably via Ang-II inhibition .
- ^ Mascolo A, Urbanek K, De Angelis A, Sessa M, Scavone C, Berrino L, et al. (March 2020). "Angiotensin II and angiotensin 1-7: which is their role in atrial fibrillation?". Heart Failure Reviews. 25 (2). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 367–380. doi:10.1007/s10741-019-09837-7. PMID 31375968.
the possibility of using the A1-7 or ACE2 analogues, to enlarge current therapeutic options for AF, may represent an important field of research.
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Many α-coronaviruses utilize aminopeptidase N (APN) as their receptor, SARS-CoV and HCoV-NL63 use angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as their receptor, MHV enters through CEACAM1, and the recently identified MERS-CoV binds to dipeptidyl-peptidase 4 (DPP4) to gain entry into human cells (See Table 1 for a list of known CoV receptors).
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Once SARS-CoV binds to its receptor, the abundance on the cell surface, mRNA expression and the enzymatic activity of ACE2 are significantly reduced. ... These effects are, in part, due to enhanced shedding/internalizing processes. ... The spike protein binds to ACE2 and subsequently down regulated ACE2 protein expression and resulted in worsened acid aspiration pneumonia
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Our results suggest an important role of ACE inhibitors, but not ARBs, in reducing the risk of pneumonia. These data may discourage the withdrawal of ACE inhibitors in some patients with tolerable adverse events (namely, cough) who are at particularly high risk of pneumonia. ACE inhibitors also lowered the risk of pneumonia related mortality, mainly in patients with established disease, but the robustness of the evidence was weaker.
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External links
- Human ACE2 genome location and ACE2 gene details page in the UCSC Genome Browser.
- Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in Membranome database
- 3D structure of complex of a neurotransmitter sodium symporter B(0)AT1, ACE2, and SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain in OPM database
- Overview of all the structural information available in the PDB for UniProt: Q9BYF1 (Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) at the PDBe-KB.