Harlem Renaissance

For the eponymous basketball team, see New York Renaissance.

Major representatives of the Harlem Renaissance.

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the 1920s. At the time, it was known as the "New Nigga Movement", named after the 1925 anthology by Alain Locke. The Movement also encompassed the new African-American cultural expressions across the urban areas in the Northeast and Midwest United States effected by the Great Migration (African American), of which Harlem was the largest. Though it was centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City, in addition, many French-speaking black writers from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in Paris were also influenced by the Harlem Renaissance.

The Harlem Renaissance is generally considered to have spanned from about 1919 until the early or mid-1930s. Many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature", as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, was placed between 1924 (the year that Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life hosted a party for black writers where many white publishers were in attendance) and 1929 (the year of the stock market crash and the beginning of the Great Depression).

Background to Harlem

Until the end of the Civil War, the majority of African-Americans had been enslaved and lived in the South. After the end of slavery, the emancipated African-Americans began to strive for civic participation, political equality and economic and cultural self-determination. Soon after the end of the Civil War the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 gave rise to speeches by African-American Congressmen addressing this Bill. By 1875 sixteen blacks had been elected and served in Congress and gave numerous speeches with their newfound civil empowerment. The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was renounced by black Congressmen and resulted in the passage of Civil Rights Act of 1875, part of Reconstruction legislation by Republicans. By the late 1870s, Democratic whites managed to regain power in the South. From 1890 to 1908 they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised most Negros and many poor whites, trapping them without representation. They established white supremacist regimes of Jim Crow segregation in the South and one-party block voting behind southern Democrats. The Democratic whites denied African-Americans their exercise of civil and political rights by terrorizing black communities with lynch mobs and other forms of vigilante violence as well as by instituting a convict labor system that forced many thousands of African-Americans back into unpaid labor in mines, on plantations, and on public works projects such as roads and levees. Convict laborers were typically subject to brutal forms of corporal punishment, overwork, and disease from unsanitary conditions. Death rates were extraordinarily high. While a small number of blacks were able to acquire land shortly after the Civil War, most were exploited as sharecroppers. As life in the South became increasingly difficult, African-Americans began to migrate north in great numbers.

Most of the African-American literary movement arose from a generation that had lived through the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the American Civil War. Sometimes their parents or grandparents had been slaves. Their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in social capital, including better-than-average education. Many in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the Great Migration out of the South into the Negro neighborhoods of the North and Midwest. African-Americans sought a better standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean who came to the United States hoping for a better life. Uniting most of them was their convergence in Harlem, New York City.

Development of African-American community in Harlem

Contemporary silent black and white documentary short.

During the early portion of the 20th century, Harlem was the destination for migrants from around the country, attracting both people seeking work from the South, and an educated class who made the area a center of culture, as well as a growing "Negro" middle class. The district had originally been developed in the 19th century as an exclusive suburb for the white middle and upper middle classes; its affluent beginnings led to the development of stately houses, grand avenues, and world-class amenities such as the Polo Grounds and the Harlem Opera House. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late nineteenth century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the native white middle-class, who moved further north.

Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early 1900s. In 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-American realtors and a church group. Many more African Americans arrived during the First World War. Due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities like Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, and New York.

Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more recent ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African-American communities, even in the North. After the end of World War I, many African American soldiers—who fought in segregated units such as the Harlem Hellfighters—came home to a nation whose citizens often did not respect their accomplishments. Race riots and other civil uprisings occurred throughout the US during the Red Summer of 1919, reflecting economic competition over jobs and housing in many cities, as well as tensions over social territories.

An explosion of culture in Harlem

The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. 1917 saw the premiere of Three Plays for a Negro Theatre. These plays, written by white playwright Ridgely Torrence, featured African-American actors conveying complex human emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the blackface and minstrel show traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called the premieres of these plays "the most important single event in the entire history of the Negro in the American Theater." Another landmark came in 1919, when the poet Claude McKay published his militant sonnet, "If We Must Die". Although the poem never alluded to race, to African-American readers heard its note of defiance in the face of racism and the nationwide race riots and lynchings then taking place. By the end of the First World War, the fiction of James Weldon Johnson and the poetry of Claude McKay were describing the reality of contemporary African-American life in America.

In 1917 Hubert Harrison, "The Father of Harlem Radicalism," founded the Liberty League and The Voice, the first organization and the first newspaper, respectively, of the "New Negro Movement". Harrison's organization and newspaper were political, but also emphasized the arts (his newspaper had "Poetry for the People" and book review sections). In 1927, in the Pittsburgh Courier, Harrison challenged the notion of the renaissance. He argued that the "Negro Literary Renaissance" notion overlooked "the stream of literary and artistic products which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to the present", and said the so-called "renaissance" was largely a white invention.

The Harlem Renaissance grew out of the changes that had taken place in the African-American community since the abolition of slavery, as well as the expansion of communities in the North. These accelerated as a consequence of World War I and the great social and cultural changes in early 20th century United States. Industrialization was attracting people to cities from rural areas and gave rise to a new mass culture. Contributing factors leading to the Harlem Renaissance were the Great Migration of African Americans to northern cities, which concentrated ambitious people in places where they could encourage each other, and the First World War, which had created new industrial work opportunities for tens of thousands of people. Factors leading to the decline of this era include the Great Depression.

Music

A new way of playing the piano called the Harlem Stride Style was created during the Harlem Renaissance, and helped blur the lines between the poor Negros and socially elite Negros. The traditional jazz band was composed primarily of brass instruments and was considered a symbol of the south, but the piano was considered an instrument of the wealthy. With this instrumental modification to the existing genre, the wealthy blacks now had more access to jazz music. Its popularity soon spread throughout the country and was consequently at an all time high. Innovation and liveliness were important characteristics of performers in the beginnings of jazz. Jazz musicians at the time like Fats Waller, Duke Ellington, Jelly Roll Morton, and Willie "The Lion" Smith were very talented and competitive, and were considered to have laid the foundation for future musicians of their genre.

During the time period, the musical style of blacks was becoming more and more attractive to whites. White novelists, dramatists and composers started to exploit the musical tendencies and themes of African-Americans in their works. Composers used poems written by African American poets in their songs, and would implement the rhythms, harmonies and melodies of African-American music—such as blues, spirituals, and jazz—into their concert pieces. Negros began to merge with Whites into the classical world of musical composition. The first Negro male to gain wide recognition as a concert artist in both his region and internationally was Roland Hayes. He trained with Arthur Calhoun in Chattanooga, and at Fisk University in Nashville. Later, he studied with Arthur Hubbard in Boston and with George Henshel and Amanda Ira Aldridge in London, England. He began singing in public as a student, and toured with the Fisk Jubilee Singers in 1911.

Characteristics and themes

Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride that came to be represented in the idea of the New Negro, who through intellect and production of literature, art, and music could challenge the pervading racism and stereotypes to promote progressive or socialist politics, and racial and social integration The creation of art and literature would serve to "uplift" the race.

There would be no uniting form singularly characterizing the art that emerged out of the Harlem Renaissance. Rather, it encompassed a wide variety of cultural elements and styles, including a Pan-African perspective, "high-culture" and "low-culture" or "low-life," from the traditional form of music to the blues and jazz, traditional and new experimental forms in literature such as modernism and the new form of jazz poetry. This duality meant that numerous African-American artists came into conflict with conservatives in the black intelligentsia, who took issue with certain depictions of black life.

Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the experience of slavery and emerging African-American folk traditions on black identity, the effects of institutional racism, the dilemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North.

The Harlem Renaissance was one of primarily African-American involvement. It rested on a support system of black patrons, black-owned businesses and publications. However, it also depended on the patronage of white Americans, such as Carl Van Vechten and Charlotte Osgood Mason, who provided various forms of assistance, opening doors which otherwise would have remained closed to the publication of work outside the black American community. This support often took the form of patronage or publication.

There were other whites interested in so-called "primitive" cultures, as many whites viewed black American culture at that time, and wanted to see such "primitive" in the work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance. As with most fads, some people may have been exploited in the rush for publicity.

Interest in African-American lives also generated experimental but lasting collaborative work, such as the all-black productions of George Gershwin's opera Porgy and Bess, and Virgil Thomson and Gertrude Stein's Four Saints in Three Acts. In both productions the choral conductor Eva Jessye was part of the creative team. Her choir was featured in Four Saints. The music world also found white band leaders defying racist attitudes to include the best and the brightest African-American stars of music and song in their productions.

The African Americans used art to prove their humanity and demand for equality. The Harlem Renaissance led to more opportunities for blacks to be published by mainstream houses. Many authors began to publish novels, magazines and newspapers during this time. The new fiction attracted a great amount of attention from the nation at large. Some authors who became nationally known were Jean Toomer, Jessie Fauset, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson, Alain Locke, Eric D. Walrond and Langston Hughes.

The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the post-World War II phase of the Civil Rights Movement. Moreover, many black artists who rose to creative maturity afterward were inspired by this literary movement.

The Renaissance was more than a literary or artistic movement, it possessed a certain sociological development—particularly through a new racial consciousness—through racial integration, as seen in the Back to Africa movement led by Marcus Garvey. W. E. B. Du Bois' notion of "twoness", introduced in The Souls of Black Folk (1903), explored a divided awareness of one's identity that was a unique critique of the social ramifications of racial consciousness.

Influence of the Harlem Renaissance

A new black Identity

Langston Hughes, novelist and poet, photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 1936

"Sometimes I feel discriminated against, but it does not make me angry. It merely astonishes me. How can anyone deny themselves the pleasure of my company? It's beyond me." - Zora Neale Hurston

The Harlem Renaissance was successful in that it brought the Black experience clearly within the corpus of American cultural history. Not only through an explosion of culture, but on a sociological level, the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance redefined how America, and the world, viewed African Americans. The migration of southern Blacks to the north changed the image of the African-American from rural, undereducated peasants to one of urban, cosmopolitan sophistication. This new identity led to a greater social consciousness, and African Americans became players on the world stage, expanding intellectual and social contacts internationally.

The progress—both symbolic and real—during this period, became a point of reference from which the African-American community gained a spirit of self-determination that provided a growing sense of both Black urbanity and Black militancy, as well as a foundation for the community to build upon for the Civil Rights struggles in the 1950s and 1960s.

The urban setting of rapidly developing Harlem provided a venue for African Americans of all backgrounds to appreciate the variety of Black life and culture. Through this expression, the Harlem Renaissance encouraged the new appreciation of folk roots and culture. For instance, folk materials and spirituals provided a rich source for the artistic and intellectual imagination, which freed Blacks from the establishment of past condition. Through sharing in these cultural experiences, a consciousness sprung forth in the form of a united racial identity.

Criticism of the movement

Many critics point out that the Harlem Renaissance could not escape its history and culture in its attempt to create a new one, or sufficiently separate from the foundational elements of White, European culture. Often Harlem intellectuals, while proclaiming a new racial consciousness, resorted to mimicry of their white counterparts by adopting their clothing, sophisticated manners and etiquette. This 'mimicry' may also be called assimilation, as that is typically what minority members of any social construct must do in order to fit social norms created by that construct's majority. This could be seen as a reason for which the artistic and cultural products of the Harlem Renaissance did not overcome the presence of White-American values, and did not reject these values. In this regard, the creation of the "New Negro" as the Harlem intellectuals sought, was considered a success.

The Harlem Renaissance appealed to a mixed audience. The literature appealed to the African-American middle class and to whites. Magazines such as The Crisis, a monthly journal of the NAACP, and Opportunity, an official publication of the National Urban League, employed Harlem Renaissance writers on their editorial staffs; published poetry and short stories by black writers; and promoted African-American literature through articles, reviews, and annual literary prizes. As important as these literary outlets were, however, the Renaissance relied heavily on white publishing houses and white-owned magazines. A major accomplishment of the Renaissance was to push open the door to mainstream white periodicals and publishing houses, although the relationship between the Renaissance writers and white publishers and audiences created some controversy. W. E. B. Du Bois did not oppose the relationship between black writers and white publishers, but he was critical of works such as Claude McKay's bestselling novel Home to Harlem (1928) for appealing to the "prurient demand[s]" of white readers and publishers for portrayals of black "licentiousness." Langston Hughes spoke for most of the writers and artists when he wrote in his essay The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain (1926) that black artists intended to express themselves freely, no matter what the black public or white public thought.

African-American musicians and other performers also played to mixed audiences. Harlem's cabarets and clubs attracted both Harlem residents and white New Yorkers seeking out Harlem nightlife. Harlem's famous Cotton Club, where Duke Ellington performed, carried this to an extreme, by providing black entertainment for exclusively white audiences. Ultimately, the more successful black musicians and entertainers who appealed to a mainstream audience moved their performances downtown.

Certain aspects of the Harlem Renaissance were accepted without debate, and without scrutiny. One of these was the future of the "New Negro." Artists and intellectuals of the Harlem Renaissance echoed the American progressivism in its faith in democratic reform, in its belief in art and literature as agents of change, and in its almost uncritical belief in itself and its future. This progressivist worldview rendered Black intellectuals—just like their White counterparts—unprepared for the rude shock of the Great Depression, and the Harlem Renaissance ended abruptly because of naive assumptions about the centrality of culture, unrelated to economic and social realities.

Notable figures and their works

Novels

• Arna Bontemps — God Sends Sunday (1931), Black Thunder (1936)
• Countee Cullen — One Way to Heaven (1932)
• Jessie Redmon Fauset — There is Confusion (1924), Plum Bun (1928), The Chinaberry Tree (1931), Comedy, American Style (1933)
• Rudolph Fisher — The Walls of Jericho (1928), The Conjure-Man Dies (1932)
• Langston Hughes — Not Without Laughter (1930)
• Zora Neale Hurston — Jonah's Gourd Vine (1934), Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937)
• Nella Larsen — Quicksand (1928), Passing (1929)
• Claude McKay — Home to Harlem (1927), Banjo (1929), Gingertown (1931), Banana Bottom (1933)
• George Schuyler — Black No More (1931), Slaves Today (1931)
• Wallace Thurman — The Blacker the Berry (1929), Infants of the Spring (1932), Interne (1932)
• Jean Toomer — Cane (1923)
• Carl Van Vechten — Nigger Heaven (1926)
• Walter White — The Fire in the Flint (1924), Flight (1926)

Short story collections

• Eric Walrond — Tropic Death (1926)

Drama

• Joseph Seamon Cotter, Jr., author of the play, On the Fields of France.
• Charles Gilpin, actor
• Angelina Weld Grimke, author of the drama, Rachel
• Langston Hughes, Mulatto, produced on Broadway. Hughes also helped to found the Harlem Suitcase Theater
• Zora Neale Hurston, author of the play Color Struck
• Georgia Douglas Johnson, author of the play, Plumes, A Tragedy.
• John Matheus, author of the play, 'Cruiter.
• Richard Bruce Nugent, author of the play, Sahdji, an African Ballet.
• Paul Robeson, actor
• Eulalie Spence, author of the play, Undertow.

Poetry

• Lewis Grandison Alexander, poet
• Gwendolyn Bennett, poet
• Arna Bontemps, poet
• Sterling A. Brown, poet
• Lillian Byrnes, poet
• Joyce Sims Carrington, poet
• Ethel M. Caution, poet
• Anita Scott Coleman, poet
• Joseph Seamon Cotter, Jr., poet
• Mae V. Cowdery, poet
• Countee Cullen, poet — The Black Christ and Other Poems (1929)
• Clarissa Scott Delany, poet
• Blanche Taylor Dickinson, poet
• Ruth G. Dixon, poet
• Alice Dunbar-Nelson, poet and fiction writer

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• Jessie Redmon Fauset, editor, poet, essayist and novelist
• Angelina Weld Grimke, poet and dramatist
• Gladys May Casely Hayford, poet
• Virginia A. Houston, poet
• Langston Hughes, poet, fiction-writer, essayist, dramatist, autobiographer, editor
• Mary Jenness, poet
• Georgia Douglas Johnson, poet
• Helene Johnson, poet
• James Weldon Johnson, poet, God's Trombones
• Rosalie M. Jonas, poet
• Dorothy Kruger, poet
• Aqua Laluah, poet
• Elma Ehrlich Levinger, poet

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• Marjorie Marshall, poet
• Dorothea Mathews, poet
• Bessie Mayle, poet
• Claude McKay, poet and novelist
• May Miller, poet and playwright
• Isabel Neill, poet singer
• Effie Lee Newsome, poet
• Richard Bruce Nugent, poet
• Esther Popel, poet
• Anne Spencer, poet
• Margaret L. Thomas, poet
• Eloise Bibb Thompson, poet
• Jean Toomer, poet and novelist
• Eda Lou Walton, poet
• Lucy Ariel Williams, poet
• Octavia Beatrice Wynbush, poet
• Kathleen Tankersley Young, poet

• Robert Hayden, poet

Leading intellectuals

• William Stanley Braithwaite
• Marion Vera Cuthbert
• W. E. B. Du Bois
• Marcus Garvey
• L.S. Alexander Gumby, Archivist and salon host
• Hubert Harrison
• Leslie Pinckney Hill

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• James Weldon Johnson
• Charles Spurgeon Johnson
• S. J. Joyce
• Alain Locke
• Mary White Ovington
• Chandler Owen

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• A. Philip Randolph
• Joel Augustus Rogers
• Arthur Schomburg
• Carl Van Vechten
• Walter White
• Cyril Briggs

Visual artists

• Charles Alston
• Henry Bannarn
• Romare Bearden
• Leslie Bolling, Wood carvings
• Beauford Delaney
• Aaron Douglas

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• Palmer Hayden
• Paul Heath
• Sargent Johnson
• William H. Johnson, Painter
• Lois Mailou Jones

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• Jacob Lawrence
• Norman Lewis, Artist
• Archibald Motley
• Augusta Savage
• Prentiss Taylor

Popular entertainment

• Cotton Club
• Apollo Theater
• Harlem Opera House
• Lafayette Theatre
• Black Swan Records
• Small's Paradise
• Connie's Inn
• Harlem Globetrotters
• Speakeasies
• Rent party
• Savoy Ballroom

Musicians and composers

• Marian Anderson
• Lil Armstrong
• Louis Armstrong
• Ivie Anderson
• Count Basie
• Eubie Blake
• Lucille Bogan
• George Bueno
• Cab Calloway
• The King Cole Trio
• The Chocolate Dandies
• The Dandridge Sisters
• Duke Ellington
• Ella Fitzgerald
• Dizzy Gillespie
• Adelaide Hall

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• Roland Hayes
• Fletcher Henderson
• Earl "Fatha" Hines
• Billie Holiday
• Lena Horne
• Charlie Johnson
• James P. Johnson
• Lonnie Johnson
• Moms Mabley
• Pigmeat Markham
• The Will Mastin Trio
• McKinney's Cotton Pickers
• Nina Mae McKinney
• Florence Mills
• Thelonious Monk
• Mantan Moreland

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• Jelly Roll Morton
• Ma Rainey
• Nora Douglas Holt Ray
• Cecil Scott
• Noble Sissle
• Bessie Smith
• Mamie Smith
• Victoria Spivey
• William Still
• Billy Strayhorn
• Fats Waller
• Ethel Waters
• Chick Webb
• Bert Williams
• Fess Williams

Dancers

• Josephine Baker
• Bill 'Bojangles' Robinson
• The Nicholas Brothers

See also

• African American art
• Blackbirds of 1928
• List of African-American visual artists
• African American culture
• African American literature
• Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance (book)
• New Negro
• Niggerati
• Roaring Twenties
• Shuffle Along
• Runnin' Wild
• Charleston
• William E. Harmon Foundation award

External links

• A Guide to Harlem Renaissance Materials, from the Library of Congress
• The Approaching 100th Anniversary of the Harlem Renaissance by HR historian Aberjhani

Bibliography

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• Andrews, William L.; Foster, Frances S.; Harris, Trudier eds. The Concise Oxford Companion To African American Literature. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. ISBN 1-4028-9296-9
• Bean, Annemarie. A Sourcebook on African-American Performance: Plays, People, Movements. London: Routledge, 1999; pp. vii + 360.
• Greaves, William' documentary From These Roots.
• Hicklin, Fannie Ella Frazier. 'The American Negro Playwright, 1920–1964.' Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Speech, University of Wisconsin, 1965. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms 65-6217.
• Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-19-501665-3
• Hughes, Langston. The Big Sea. New York: Knopf, 1940.
• Hutchinson, George. The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White. New York: Belknap Press, 1997. ISBN 0-674-37263-8
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• Patton, Venetria K. and Maureen Honey, eds. Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2006.
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• Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes. 2 volumes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 and 1988.
• Robertson, Stephen, et al., “Disorderly Houses: Residences, Privacy, and the Surveillance of Sexuality in 1920s Harlem,” Journal of the History of Sexuality, 21 (Sept. 2012), 443–66.
• Soto, Michael, ed. Teaching The Harlem Renaissance. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.
• Tracy, Steven C. Langston Hughes and the Blues. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988.
• Watson, Steven. The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American Culture, 1920–1930. New York: Pantheon Books, 1995. ISBN 0-679-75889-5
• Williams, Iain Cameron. "Underneath a Harlem Moon ... The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall". Continuum Int. Publishing, 2003 ISBN 0826458939
• Wintz, Cary D. Black Culture and the Harlem Renaissance. Houston: Rice University Press, 1988.
• Wintz, Cary D. Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2007