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Aphrodisiac

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This article is about the detailed description of the term. For other uses, see Aphrodisiac (disambiguation). For Brandy's song, see Afrodisiac (song).

An aphrodisiac is a substance alleged to increase libido, sexual desire, sexual attraction, sexual pleasure, or sexual behavior.[1][2][3] These substances range from a variety of plants, spices, and foods to synthetic chemicals.[1][4] Natural aphrodisiacs, such as cannabis or cocaine, are classified into plant-based and non-plant-based substances.[4][5] Synthetic aphrodisiacs include MDMA and methamphetamine. Aphrodisiacs can be classified by their type of effects (psychological or physiological).[1] Aphrodisiacs that contain hallucinogenic properties, such as bufotenin, have psychological effects that can increase sexual desire and sexual pleasure.[1][3] Aphrodisiacs that have smooth muscle relaxing properties, such as yohimbine, have physiological effects that can affect hormone concentrations and increase blood flow.[1][4]

Aphrodisiac effects may be due to the placebo effect.[2] Substances that inhibit effects that aphrodisiacs aim to enhance are called anaphrodisiacs,[2] which have the opposite effects on libido.

Both males and females can potentially benefit from the use of aphrodisiacs, but they are more focused on males, as their properties tend to increase testosterone concentrations rather than estrogen concentrations.[3] This is in part due to the historical context of aphrodisiacs, which focused solely on males. Only recently has attention been paid to understanding how aphrodisiacs can aid female sexual function.[5] In addition, cultural influences on appropriate sexual behavior of males and females also play a part in the research gap.[5]

History

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The word comes from the Greek ἀφροδισιακόν, aphrodisiakon, i.e. "sexual, aphrodisiac", from aphrodisios, i.e. "pertaining to Aphrodite",[6][7] the Greek goddess of love. Throughout human history, food, drinks, and behaviors have had a reputation for making sex more attainable and/or pleasurable. However, from a historical and scientific standpoint, the alleged results may have been mainly due to mere belief on the part of their users that they would be effective (a placebo effect). Likewise, many medicines are reported to affect libido in inconsistent or idiopathic ways:[8] enhancing or diminishing overall sexual desire, depending on the circumstances. For example, bupropion (Wellbutrin) is known as an antidepressant that can counteract other co-prescribed antidepressants with libido-diminishing effects. However, because bupropion increases libido only when it is already impaired by related medications, it is not generally classed as an aphrodisiac.

Ancient civilizations like Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, Roman, and Greek cultures believed that certain substances could provide the key to improving sexual desire, sexual pleasure, and/or sexual behavior.[1][4] This was important, because some men suffered from erectile dysfunction and could not reproduce.[1][4] Men who could not impregnate their wives and father large families were seen as failures, whereas those who could were respected. Hence, a stimulant was needed.[1][5] Others who did not suffer from this also desired performance enhancers.[4] Regardless of their usage, these substances gained popularity and began to be documented, information being passed down generations.[3] There are Hindu poems dated back to around 2000 to 1000 BCE that spoke of performance enhancers, ingredients, and usage tips.[3] Chinese texts date back to 2697 to 2595 BC.[5] Roman and Chinese cultures documented their belief in aphrodisiac qualities in animal genitalia, while Egyptians wrote tips for treating erectile dysfunction.[5] In Post-classical West Africa, a volume titled Advising Men on Sexual Engagement with Their Women from the Timbuktu Manuscripts acted as a guide on aphrodisiacs and infertility remedies. It offered advice to men on "winning back" their wives. According to Hammer, "At a time when women’s sexuality was barely acknowledged in the West, the manuscript, a kind of Baedeker to orgasm, offered tips for maximizing sexual pleasure on both sides."[9]

Ambergris, Bufo toad, yohimbine, horny goat weed, ginseng, alcohol, and certain foods are recorded throughout these texts as possessing aphrodisiac qualities.[1] While many plants, extracts, or manufactured hormones have been proposed as aphrodisiacs, there is little high-quality clinical evidence of their efficacy or long-term safety.[8][10]

There has been increasing attention in recent years surrounding the use of aphrodisiac drugs.[11] In 2020, Brian Earp and Julian Savulescu published a philosophy book entitled Love Drugs: The Chemical Future of Relationships (UK title Love Is the Drug: The Chemical Future of Our Relationships). They argued that certain forms of medications can be ethically consumed as a "helpful complement" in relationships. Both to fall in love and to fall out of it.[11]

Types

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Ambergris

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Ambergris

Ambergris is found in the gut of sperm whales. It is commonly used in Arab cultures as relief medication for headaches or as a performance enhancer. The derived chemical Ambrein increases testosterone concentrations, triggering sexual desire and sexual behavior, but in animal studies only. Further research is needed to know the effects in humans.[3]

Bufotenin

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Bufotenin is found in the skin and glands of Bufo toads. It is commonly used in Caribbean and China. In the Caribbean, it is used as an aphrodisiac called 'Love Stone'. In China, it is used as a heart medication called Chan su.[3] Research shows that the toad skin secretion containing this compound can reduce a toad’s heart rate, but its effect on humans is unknown.[12]

Yohimbine

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Yohimbine chemical structure

Yohimbine is a substance found in the bark of yohim trees in West Africa.[4] It was traditionally used in West African cultures, in which the bark would be boiled and the resulting water drunk until it increased sexual desire.[1] It has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration and can be prescribed for sexual dysfunction in the USA and Canada.[1][5] It is also found in over-the-counter health products.[1] Yohimbine is an indole alkaloid and is an adrenoceptor antagonist. It affects the central nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and the penile tissue and vascular smooth muscle cells that are involved in penile erection and it is also used to treat physiologically impaired and psychogenic erectile dysfunction,[1][4] preferably in combination with other treatments.[13] Known adverse effects include nausea, anxiety, irregular heartbeats, and restlessness.[4]

Horny goat weed

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Horny goat weed (Epimedii herba) is used in Chinese folk medicine.[1] It was thought to be useful for treating medical conditions and improving sexual desire, sexual pleasure, and/or sexual behavior.[1] Horny goat weed contains icariin, a flavanol glycoside. Its exotic name comes from the tendency of goats in the region to seek out this weed. Once farmers saw its effects on the goat population they began to use it to increase the number of workers on their farms.[1][4]

Alcohol

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A molecule of alcohol

Alcohol has been associated as an aphrodisiac, owing to its effect as a central nervous system depressant.[5] Depressants can increase sexual desire and sexual behavior through disinhibition.[2][5] Alcohol affects people both physiologically and psychologically, and it is therefore difficult to determine exactly how people experience its aphrodisiac effects (aphrodisiac qualities or the expectancy effect).[2] Alcohol taken in moderate quantities can elicit a positive increase in sexual desire, whereas larger quantities are associated with difficulties in reaching sexual pleasure.[2][14] As the porter in Shakespeare's Macbeth observes, “it provokes the desire, but it takes away the performance”. Chronic alcohol consumption is related to sexual dysfunction.[2]

Cannabis

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See also: Cannabis and sex

Marijuana reports are mixed. Half of users claim an increase in sexual desire and sexual pleasure while the other half report no effect.[2] Consumption, individual sensitivity, and possibly marijuana strain, are factors that affect outcomes.[2]

Food

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Many cultures have turned to foods as sources of increasing sexual desire; however, significant research is lacking in the study of the aphrodisiac qualities of foods. Most claims can be linked to the placebo effect.[2] Misconceptions revolve around the visual appearance of these foods in relation to male and female genitalia (carrots, bananas, oysters, and the like).[2][5] Other beliefs arise from the thought of consuming animal genitalia and absorbing their properties (e.g. cow cod soup in Jamaica and balut in the Philippines).[1] Korean bug is a popular aphrodisiac in China, Korea, and Southeast Asia, either eaten alive or in gelatin form.[15] The caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) is used as an aphrodisiac in China.[16] The story of Aphrodite, who was born from the sea, is another reason why individuals believe seafood is another source of aphrodisiacs.[5] Foods that contain volatile oils have gained little recognition in their ability to improve sexual desire, sexual pleasure, and/or sexual behavior, because they are irritants when released through the urinary tract.[3] Chocolate has been reported to increase sexual desire in women who consume it over those who do not.[citation needed] Cloves and sage have been reported to demonstrate aphrodisiac qualities, but their effects have not been specified.[1] Tropical fruits, such as Borojó and Chontaduro, are considered to be energizers in general and sexual energizers in particular.[17][18]

Ginseng

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Ginseng

Ginseng is the root of any member of the genus Panax.[1][4] Ginseng's active ingredients are ginsenosides and saponin glycosides.[19] There are three different ways of processing ginseng. Fresh ginseng is cut at four years of growth, white ginseng is cut at four to six years of growth, and red ginseng is cut, dried, and steamed at six years of growth. Red ginseng has been reported to be the most effective aphrodisiac of the three.[4] Known adverse effects include mild gastrointestinal upsets.[5]

Maca is a Peruvian plant sometimes called "Peruvian ginseng", although it is not related to Panax. It has been used as a tonic to improve sexual performance.

Synthetic aphrodisiacs

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See also: Sex and drugs
MDMA Molecule, the compound found in Ecstasy

Popular party substances have been reported by users to consist of aphrodisiac properties because of their enhancing effects with sexual pleasure. Ecstasy users have reported an increase in sexual desire and sexual pleasure; however, there have been reports of delayed orgasm in both sexes and erectile difficulties in men. Poppers, containing drugs for inhalation, have been linked to increased sexual pleasure. Known adverse effects are headaches, nausea, and temporary erectile difficulties.[2]

Phenethylamines

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Amphetamine, methylphenidate, and methamphetamine are phenethylamine derivatives, which increase libido and cause frequent or prolonged erections as potential adverse effects, particularly in supratherapeutic doses, when sexual hyperexcitability and hypersexuality can occur;[20][21][22][23] however, in some individuals who use these drugs, libido is reduced.[21][23]

2C-B was sold commercially in 5 mg pills as a purported aphrodisiac under the trade name "Erox", which was manufactured by the German pharmaceutical company Drittewelle.[24][25]

Testosterone

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Libido in males is linked to concentrations of sex hormones, particularly testosterone.[10][26][27] When there is reduced sex drive in individuals with relatively low concentrations of testosterone, particularly in postmenopausal women or men over the age of 60,[28] dietary supplements that are purported to increase serum testosterone concentrations have been used, with the intention of increasing libido, although with limited benefits.[10][28] Long-term therapy with synthetic oral testosterone is associated with increased risks of cardiovascular diseases.[29]

Risks

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Solid evidence is hard to obtain, as these substances come from many different environments cross-culturally and therefore give variable results, because of variations in growth and extraction.[4] The same is also true for unnatural substances, because variations in consumption and individual sensitivity can affect outcomes.[2] Folk medicine and self-prescribed methods can be potentially harmful, as their adverse effects are not fully known and are therefore not made aware to the people searching this topic on the internet.[1][3]

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An advertisement for pills from 1926 implies an aphrodisiac effect: "full of red-blooded vim and push".

The invention of an aphrodisiac is the basis of a number of films including Perfume: The Story of a Murderer, Spanish Fly, She'll Follow You Anywhere, Love Potion No. 9, and A Serbian Film. The first segment of Woody Allen's movie Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask) is called "Do Aphrodisiacs Work?", and casts Allen as a court jester trying to seduce the queen. The "Despair Arc" of Danganronpa 3: The End of Hope's Peak High School features a class being dosed with aphrodisiacs. In episode 2 of the anime The Apothecary Diaries, Maomao makes aphrodisiacs and three of the Ladies-in-waiting eat them unaware that they are aphrodisiacs. In the film Sexually Bewitched, a witch creates consumables that bring out and enhance the lust of whomever eats them; resulting in hijinks as the magic liberates the libido repressed by those who eat her magic.

See also

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Citations

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Melnyk, John P.; Marcone, Massimo F. (May 2011). "Aphrodisiacs from plant and animal sources—A review of current scientific literature". Food Research International. 44 (4): 840–850. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.02.043.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lehmiller, Justin J. (12 October 2017). The psychology of human sexuality (Second ed.). Hoboken, NJ. ISBN 9781119164708. OCLC 992580729.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sandroni, Paola (October 2001). "Aphrodisiacs past and present: A historical review". Clinical Autonomic Research. 11 (5): 303–307. doi:10.1007/bf02332975. ISSN 0959-9851. PMID 11758796. S2CID 32348540.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bella, Anthony J; Shamloul, Rany (June 2014). "Traditional Plant Aphrodisiacs and Male Sexual Dysfunction: PLANT APHRODISIACS". Phytotherapy Research. 28 (6): 831–835. doi:10.1002/ptr.5074. PMID 25032254. S2CID 29716079.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Shamloul, Rany (January 2010). "Natural Aphrodisiacs". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 7 (1): 39–49. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01521.x. PMID 19796015.
  6. ^ ἀφροδισιακόν. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  7. ^ "Aphrodisiac". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  8. ^ a b West E, Krychman M (October 2015). "Natural Aphrodisiacs-A Review of Selected Sexual Enhancers". Sex Med Rev. 3 (4): 279–288. doi:10.1002/smrj.62. PMID 27784600.
  9. ^ Hammer, Joshua (2016). The Bad-Ass Librarians of Timbuktu And Their Race to Save the World's Most Precious Manuscripts. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4767-7743-6.
  10. ^ a b c "Sexual health". Drugs.com. 11 June 2016. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
  11. ^ a b "Love as a drug: can romance be medically prescribed?". the Guardian. 9 February 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  12. ^ Abdel-Rahman, Mohamed A.; Ahmed, Sherifa Hamid; Nabil, Zohour I. (1 March 2010). "In vitro cardiotoxicity and mechanism of action of the Egyptian green toad Bufo viridis skin secretions". Toxicology in Vitro. 24 (2): 480–485. doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2009.09.021. ISSN 0887-2333.
  13. ^ Wibowo, DNSA; Soebadi, DM; Soebadi, MA (2021). "Yohimbine as a treatment for erectile dysfunction: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Turkish Journal of Urology. 47 (6): 482–8 – via PubMed.
  14. ^ Brown, Jessica (14 February 2019). "Do aphrodisiacs really work?". www.bbc.com. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
  15. ^ Lee JK, Tan RB, Chung E (February 2017). "Erectile dysfunction treatment and traditional medicine-can East and West medicine coexist?". Translational Andrology and Urology. 6 (1): 91–100. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.11.13. PMC 5313309. PMID 28217454.
  16. ^ Lu, D. (2023). The Global Circulation of Chinese Materia Medica, 1700-1949: A Microhistory of the Caterpillar Fungus. Medicine and Biomedical Sciences in Modern History. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–294. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24723-1. ISBN 978-3-031-24722-4. S2CID 256618310.
  17. ^ González-Jaramillo, Nancy; Bailon-Moscoso, Natalia; Duarte-Casar, Rodrigo; Romero-Benavides, Juan Carlos (January 2022). "Peach Palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth.): Ancestral Tropical Staple with Future Potential". Plants. 11 (22): 3134. doi:10.3390/plants11223134. ISSN 2223-7747. PMC 9695847. PMID 36432863.
  18. ^ González-Jaramillo, Nancy; Bailon-Moscoso, Natalia; Duarte-Casar, Rodrigo; Romero-Benavides, Juan Carlos (16 December 2022). "Alibertia patinoi (Cuatrec.) Delprete & C.H.Perss. (Borojó): food safety, phytochemicals, and aphrodisiac potential". SN Applied Sciences. 5 (1): 27. doi:10.1007/s42452-022-05251-1. ISSN 2523-3971.
  19. ^ Lü, Jian-Ming; Yao, Qizhi; Chen, Changyi (25 August 2010). "Ginseng Compounds: An Update on Their Molecular Mechanisms and Medical Applications". Current Vascular Pharmacology. 7 (3): 293–302. doi:10.2174/157016109788340767. PMC 2928028. PMID 19601854.
  20. ^ Gunne LM (2013). "Effects of Amphetamines in Humans". Drug Addiction II: Amphetamine, Psychotogen, and Marihuana Dependence. Berlin, Germany; Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. pp. 247–260. ISBN 9783642667091. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  21. ^ a b "Adderall XR Prescribing Information" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. December 2013. pp. 4–8. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
  22. ^ Montgomery KA (June 2008). "Sexual desire disorders". Psychiatry (Edgmont). 5 (6): 50–55. PMC 2695750. PMID 19727285.
  23. ^ a b "Desoxyn Prescribing Information" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. December 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2014. ADVERSE REACTIONS ... changes in libido; frequent or prolonged erections. [emphasis added]
  24. ^ "Erowid Chemicals Vaults : Images : 2cb pack". www.erowid.org. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
  25. ^ Nolan, James (5 March 2019). "This Is What 2-CB Does to You". www.vice.com. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
  26. ^ R. Shabsigh (1997). "The effects of testosterone on the cavernous tissue and erectile function". World J. Urol. 15 (1): 21–6. doi:10.1007/BF01275152. PMID 9066090. S2CID 23591806.
  27. ^ Fisher, Helen E.; Aron, Arthur; Brown, Lucy L. (29 December 2006). "Romantic love: a mammalian brain system for mate choice". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1476): 2173–2186. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1938. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 1764845. PMID 17118931.
  28. ^ a b Snyder, P. J; Bhasin, S; Cunningham, G. R; Matsumoto, A. M; Stephens-Shields, A. J; Cauley, J. A; Gill, T. M; Barrett-Connor, E; Swerdloff, R. S; Wang, C; Ensrud, K. E; Lewis, C. E; Farrar, J. T; Cella, D; Rosen, R. C; Pahor, M; Crandall, J. P; Molitch, M. E; Cifelli, D; Dougar, D; Fluharty, L; Resnick, S. M; Storer, T. W; Anton, S; Basaria, S; Diem, S. J; Hou, X; Mohler Er, I. I. I; Parsons, J. K; et al. (2016). "Effects of Testosterone Treatment in Older Men". New England Journal of Medicine. 374 (7): 611–624. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1506119. PMC 5209754. PMID 26886521.
  29. ^ Borst, S. E; Shuster, J. J; Zou, B; Ye, F; Jia, H; Wokhlu, A; Yarrow, J. F (2014). "Cardiovascular risks and elevation of serum DHT vary by route of testosterone administration: A systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Medicine. 12: 211. doi:10.1186/s12916-014-0211-5. PMC 4245724. PMID 25428524.

General and cited references

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  • Gabriele Froböse, Rolf Froböse, Michael Gross (Translator): Lust and Love: Is It More than Chemistry? Royal Society of Chemistry, 2006; ISBN 0-85404-867-7.
  • Michael Scott: Pillow Talk: A Comprehensive Guide to Erotic Hypnosis and Relyfe Programming. Blue Deck Press, 2011; ISBN 0-98341-640-0.
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