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==In politics==
==In politics==
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2013}}
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2013}}
A political example is the "[[Cold War]] mindset" prevalent in both the [[United States|U.S.]] and [[USSR]], which included absolute trust in two-player [[game theory]], in the integrity of [[chain of command|command chain]], in control of nuclear materials, and in the [[mutual assured destruction]] of both in the case of war{{ref|a}}. Although most consider that this mindset usefully served to prevent an attack by either country, the assumptions underlying [[deterrence theory]] have made assessments of the efficacy of the Cold War mindset a matter of some controversy.
A political example is the "[[Cold War]] mindset" prevalent in both the [[United States|U.S.]] and [[USSR]], which included absolute trust in two-player [[game theory]], in the integrity of [[chain of command|command chain]], in control of nuclear materials, and in the [[mutual assured destruction]] of both in the case of war. Although most consider that this mindset usefully served to prevent an attack by either country, the assumptions underlying [[deterrence theory]] have made assessments of the efficacy of the Cold War mindset a matter of some controversy<ref>{{Cite web |last=McNaugher |first=Thomas L. |date=-001-11-30T00:00:00+00:00 |title=Planning Future Defense: Time to Confront the Cold War Mindset |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/planning-future-defense-time-to-confront-the-cold-war-mindset/ |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref>.


Most theorists consider that the key responsibility of an embedded power group is to challenge the assumptions that comprise the group's own mindset.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} According to these commentators, power groups that fail to review or revise their mindsets with sufficient regularity cannot hold power indefinitely, as a single mindset is unlikely to possess the flexibility and adaptability needed to address all future events. For example, the variations in mindset between [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] Presidents in the U.S. may have made that country more able to challenge assumptions than the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]] with its more static bureaucracy.
Most theorists consider that the key responsibility of an embedded power group is to challenge the assumptions that comprise the group's own mindset.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} According to these commentators, power groups that fail to review or revise their mindsets with sufficient regularity cannot hold power indefinitely, as a single mindset is unlikely to possess the flexibility and adaptability needed to address all future events. For example, the variations in mindset between [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] Presidents in the U.S. may have made that country more able to challenge assumptions than the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]] with its more static bureaucracy.
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==Collective==
==Collective==
Naturally, the question regarding the embodiment of a collective mindset comes to mind. Erikson's (1974) analysis of group-identities and what he calls a life-plan seems relevant here. He recounts the example of American Indians, who were meant to undergo a reeducation process meant to imbue a modern "life-plan" that aimed for a house and a richness expressed by a filled bank account. Erikson writes that the Indians' collective historic identity as buffalo hunters was oriented around such fundamentally different reasons/goals that even communication about the divergent "life plans" was itself difficult.
Erikson's (1974) analysis of group-identities and what he calls a "life-plan" is relevant to the embodiment of a collective mindset. He recounts the example of American Indians, who were meant to undergo a reeducation process meant to imbue a modern "life-plan" that aimed for a house and a richness expressed by a filled bank account. Erikson writes that the Indians' collective historic identity as buffalo hunters was oriented around such fundamentally different reasons/goals that even communication about the divergent "life plans" was difficult (Erikson, 1974).


There is a double relation between the institution embodying for example an [[entrepreneurial mindset]] and its entrepreneurial performance. Firstly, an institution with an entrepreneurial philosophy will set entrepreneurial goals and strategies as a whole, but maybe even more importantly, it will foster an entrepreneurial milieu, allowing each entity to pursue emergent opportunities. In short, philosophical stance codified in the mind, hence as mindset, lead to a climate that in turn causes values that lead to practice.
There is a double relation between the institution embodying for example an [[entrepreneurial mindset]] and its entrepreneurial performance. Firstly, an institution with an entrepreneurial philosophy will set entrepreneurial goals and strategies as a whole, but maybe even more importantly, it will foster an entrepreneurial milieu, allowing each entity to pursue emergent opportunities. In short, philosophical stance codified in the mind, hence as mindset, lead to a climate that in turn causes values that lead to practice<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hitt |first=Michael A. |title=STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT |publisher=Cengage Learning. |year=2011 |location=Mason, Ohio: South-Western |language=English}}</ref>.


Collective mindsets in this sense are described in such works as Hutchin's "Cognition in the wild" (1995), who analyzes a whole team of naval navigators as the cognitive unit or as computational system, or Senges' Knowledge entrepreneurship in universities (2007). There are also parallels to the emerging field of "collective intelligence" (e.g. (Zara, 2004)) and exploiting the "Wisdom of the crowds" (Surowiecki, 2005) of stakeholders. Zara notes that since collective reflection is more explicit, discursive, and conversational, it therefore needs a good ¿[[gestell]]?—especially when it comes to information and communication technology.
Collective mindsets in this sense are described in such works as Hutchin's "Cognition in the wild" (1995), who analyzes a whole team of naval navigators as the cognitive unit or as computational system, or Senges' "Knowledge entrepreneurship in universities" (2007). There are also parallels to the emerging field of "collective intelligence" (e.g. (Zara, 2004)) and exploiting the "Wisdom of the crowds" (Surowiecki, 2005) of stakeholders. Zara notes that since collective reflection is more explicit, discursive, and conversational, it therefore needs a good ¿[[gestell]]?—especially when it comes to information and communication technology.


Most historians use the concept of mentality or mindset to denote very slowly changing mental dispositions active over longer periods of time, but occasionally there have been efforts to also apply it to much more rapidly changing historical situations such as the French revolution (Michel Vovelle) or the short period of Allied occupation of Germany after World War II (Hentschel 2007).
Most historians use the concept of mentality or mindset to denote very slowly changing mental dispositions active over longer periods of time, but occasionally there have been efforts to also apply it to much more rapidly changing historical situations such as the French revolution ([[Michel Vovelle]]) or the short period of Allied occupation of Germany after World War II (Hentschel 2007).


==Specific theories==
==Specific theories==
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=== Types and theories ===
=== Types and theories ===
There is a great deal of variation within the study of mindsets. This variation includes how to define, measure, and conceptualize a mindset as well as the types of mindset identified. Even amongst scholars within the same disciple studying the same mindset, substantial variations exist (French, 2016). Nevertheless, any discussion of mindset should include recognition concerning the numerous, varied, and growing number of mindsets and mindset theories that receive attention in multiple disciplines throughout the academy.
Variation within the study of mindsets includes how to define, measure, and conceptualize a mindset as well as the types of mindset identified. Substantial variations exist even among scholars within the same discipline, studying the same mindset (French, 2016). Nevertheless, any discussion of mindset should include recognition concerning the numerous, varied, and growing number of mindsets and mindset theories that receive attention in multiple disciplines throughout academia.


=== Mindset agency theory ===
=== Mindset agency theory ===
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==== Mindscape theory ====
==== Mindscape theory ====
The [[Myers–Briggs Type Indicator|MBTI]] deals with psychological functions that together with paired values of social attitude combine in certain ways to generate personality patterns called types that may be evaluated by exploring individual preferences (which change with context). Different is the mindscape theory of Maruyama which works with epistemological types. Mindscapes seek to measure individuals on a scale of characteristics and placed into four categories of personalities that make up the population of the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maruyama|first=Magoroh|date=July 1988|title=Dynamics among Business Practice, Aesthetics, Science, Politics and Religion|journal=Cultural Dynamics|volume=1|issue=3|pages=309–335|doi=10.1177/092137408800100304|s2cid=143782277|issn=0921-3740}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Maruyama|first1=Magoroh|last2=Beals|first2=Kenneth L.|last3=Bharati|first3=Agehananda|last4=Fuchs|first4=Helmuth|last5=Gardner|first5=Peter M.|last6=Guilmet|first6=George M.|last7=Hahn|first7=Robert A.|last8=Kamau|first8=Lucy Jayne|last9=Kronenfeld|first9=David B.|last10=Kursh|first10=Charlotte O.|last11=Meeker|first11=Joseph W.|date=October 1980|title=Mindscapes and Science Theories [and Comments and Reply]|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=21|issue=5|pages=589–608|doi=10.1086/202539|issn=0011-3204}}</ref> Each contain differing views toward information, perception, logic, and ethics. Hierarchical Bureaucrats generally view the world as having natural order with competition and consequences much like natural selection. Independent Princes view the world as random, individualistic, and chaotic with a natural decay that is inevitable. Social Reformers view the world as a balance that can be maintained by symbiosis between everything. Generative Revolutionaries view the world as potential for growth through interaction and symbiosis; change is encouraged.
The [[Myers–Briggs Type Indicator|Myer's–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)]] deals with psychological functions that, paired with values of social attitude, combine in certain ways to generate personality patterns called "types" that may be evaluated by exploring individual preferences (which change with context). Different is Maruyama's mindscape theory which works with epistemological types. Mindscapes seek to measure individuals on a scale of characteristics and place them into four categories of personalities that make up the population of the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maruyama|first=Magoroh|date=July 1988|title=Dynamics among Business Practice, Aesthetics, Science, Politics and Religion|journal=Cultural Dynamics|volume=1|issue=3|pages=309–335|doi=10.1177/092137408800100304|s2cid=143782277|issn=0921-3740}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Maruyama|first1=Magoroh|last2=Beals|first2=Kenneth L.|last3=Bharati|first3=Agehananda|last4=Fuchs|first4=Helmuth|last5=Gardner|first5=Peter M.|last6=Guilmet|first6=George M.|last7=Hahn|first7=Robert A.|last8=Kamau|first8=Lucy Jayne|last9=Kronenfeld|first9=David B.|last10=Kursh|first10=Charlotte O.|last11=Meeker|first11=Joseph W.|date=October 1980|title=Mindscapes and Science Theories [and Comments and Reply]|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=21|issue=5|pages=589–608|doi=10.1086/202539|issn=0011-3204}}</ref> Each category contains differing views toward information, perception, logic, and ethics. Hierarchical Bureaucrats generally view the world as having natural order with competition and consequences much like natural selection. Independent Princes view the world as random, individualistic, and chaotic with a natural decay that is inevitable. Social Reformers view the world as a balance that can be maintained by symbiosis between everything. Generative Revolutionaries view the world as potential for growth through interaction and symbiosis; change is encouraged.


==== Sagiv-Schwarts cultural values ====
==== Sagiv-Schwarts cultural values ====
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Those with a growth mindset believe "intelligence can be developed" and their abilities can be enhanced through the learning process.<ref name=":2" /> Feedback and failure are seen as opportunities for increasing ability signaling the "need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice, and master the new learning opportunity".<ref name=":1" />
Those with a growth mindset believe "intelligence can be developed" and their abilities can be enhanced through the learning process.<ref name=":2" /> Feedback and failure are seen as opportunities for increasing ability signaling the "need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice, and master the new learning opportunity".<ref name=":1" />


A word that closely relates to a growth mindset is grit. Grit can be defined as the combination of determination and perseverance.<ref>KEOWN, S. R., & BOURKE, B. (2019). A Qualitative Investigation of Fixed Versus Growth Mindsets of Third and Fourth Grade Students. ''Education'', ''140''(2), 51–58.</ref> Keown and Bourke discussed the importance for those growing up to have not only a growth mindset but also grit. The combination of these two things. In their study they found that those in a lower economic status had a higher chance of success if they had a growth mindset and were willing to work hard through tribulation.
[[Grit (personality trait)|Grit]] closely relates to a growth mindset. Grit can be defined as the combination of determination and perseverance.<ref>KEOWN, S. R., & BOURKE, B. (2019). A Qualitative Investigation of Fixed Versus Growth Mindsets of Third and Fourth Grade Students. ''Education'', ''140''(2), 51–58.</ref> Keown and Bourke discussed the importance for those growing up to have a combination of not only a growth mindset but also grit. Their 2019 study found that those in a lower economic status had a higher chance of success if they had a growth mindset and were willing to work hard through tribulation<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keown |first=Stacey R. |last2=Bourke |first2=Brian |date=2019-12-22 |title=A QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF FIXED VERSUS GROWTH MINDSETS OF THIRD AND FOURTH GRADE STUDENTS. |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=00131172&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA611547960&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |journal=Education |language=English |volume=140 |issue=2 |pages=51–59}}</ref>.


==== Classroom implications ====
==== Classroom Implications ====
A large part of Dweck's research on mindsets has been done in the field of education, and how these mindsets affect a student's performance in the classroom. In order for students to effectively adopt a growth mindset, a classroom culture needs to be established that nurtures this type of thinking. One of the ways educators can do this is by creating a growth-mindset culture in their classroom that provides the right kind of praise and encouragement.<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard">{{cite journal |last1=Dweck |first1=Carol S. |title=Even Geniuses Work Hard |journal=Educational Leadership |date=September 2010 |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=16–20}}</ref> According to Dweck (2010), "praising students for the process they have engaged in—the effort they applied, the strategies they used, the choices they made, the persistence they displayed, and so on—yields more long-term benefits than telling them they are 'smart' when they succeed".<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard"/> As such, it is important for educators to carefully craft and design meaningful learning activities for their students to engage in the classroom. According to Dweck 2010, "the teacher should portray challenges as fun and exciting, while portraying easy tasks as boring and less useful for the brain".<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard"/> Students who are engaged in more challenging learning activities, have more opportunities to make mistakes and struggle, allowing the teacher to interject with some new strategies to try while praising students for the work they have done so far.
A large part of Dweck's research on mindsets has been done in the field of education and how these mindsets affect a student's performance in the classroom. In order for students to effectively adopt a growth mindset, a classroom culture needs to be established that nurtures this type of thinking. One of the ways educators can do this is by creating a growth-mindset culture in their classroom that provides the right kind of praise and encouragement.<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard">{{cite journal |last1=Dweck |first1=Carol S. |title=Even Geniuses Work Hard |journal=Educational Leadership |date=September 2010 |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=16–20}}</ref> According to Dweck (2010), "praising students for the process they have engaged in—the effort they applied, the strategies they used, the choices they made, the persistence they displayed, and so on—yields more long-term benefits than telling them they are 'smart' when they succeed".<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard"/> As such, it is important for educators to carefully craft and design meaningful learning activities for their students to engage in the classroom. According to Dweck (2010), "the teacher should portray challenges as fun and exciting, while portraying easy tasks as boring and less useful for the brain".<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard"/> Students who are engaged in more challenging learning activities have more opportunities to make mistakes and struggle, allowing the teacher to interject with new strategies to try while praising students for the work they have done so far.


A second strategy to promote a growth-mindset culture in the classroom is to explicitly teach lessons related to what it means to adopt a growth mindset. Possible activities include establishing personal goals, writing letters, or having students share with one another something they used to be poor at and now are very good at.<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard"/> In a recent study by Hussein (2018), the effects of reflective journal writing on students' growth mindset was examined. It was found that the use of journaling could positively affect a student's learning process by improving their conceptual knowledge, promoting growth mindset, and enhancing understanding of their thoughts through writing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hussein |first1=Hinda |title=Examining the Effects of Reflective Journals on Students' Growth Mindset: A Case Study of Tertiary Level EFL Students in the United Arab Emirates |journal=IAFOR Journal of Education |date=2018 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=33–50|doi=10.22492/ije.6.2.03 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
A second strategy to promote a growth-mindset culture in the classroom is to explicitly teach lessons related to what it means to adopt a growth mindset. Possible activities include establishing personal goals, writing letters, or having students share with one another something they used to be poor at and now are very good at.<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard"/> In a recent study by Hussein (2018), the effects of reflective journal writing on students' growth mindset was examined. It was found that the use of journaling could positively affect a student's learning process by improving their conceptual knowledge, promoting growth mindset, and enhancing understanding of their thoughts through writing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hussein |first1=Hinda |title=Examining the Effects of Reflective Journals on Students' Growth Mindset: A Case Study of Tertiary Level EFL Students in the United Arab Emirates |journal=IAFOR Journal of Education |date=2018 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=33–50|doi=10.22492/ije.6.2.03 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


The way educators evaluate their students' work and communicate their progress can also contribute to the establishment of a growth mindset culture in the classroom. More specifically, Dweck (2010) identifies the word "yet" as a valuable tool to assess students' learning. If an educator hears students saying they are not good at something or can't do something, it is important for the teacher to interject with the words "not yet" to reinforce the idea that ability and motivation are fluid.<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard"/> Overall, it is clear to see that a classroom that includes challenging learning tasks, praising of the process, and explicit growth mindset teaching and assessment, is a classroom where students will have the tools needed to become lifelong learners.
The way educators evaluate their students' work and communicate their progress can also contribute to the establishment of a growth mindset culture in the classroom. More specifically, Dweck (2010) identifies the word "yet" as a valuable tool to assess students' learning. If an educator hears students saying they are not good at something or can't do something, it is important for the teacher to interject with the words "not yet" to reinforce the idea that ability and motivation are fluid.<ref name="Even Geniuses Work Hard"/> Overall, a classroom that includes challenging learning tasks, praising of the process, and explicit growth mindset teaching and assessment, is a classroom where students will have the tools needed to become lifelong learners.


==== Reshaping mindsets in students and educators ====
==== Reshaping mindsets in students and educators ====
While elements of our personality – such as sensitivity to mistakes and setbacks – can make us predisposed towards holding a certain mindset, we are able to develop and reshape our mindset through our interactions.<ref name="Aldhous, P. 2008">Aldhous, P. (2008). Free your mind and watch it grow. New Scientist, 199(2670), 44-45.</ref> In multiple studies, Dweck and her colleagues noted that alterations in mindset could be achieved through "praising the process through which success was achieved",<ref>Cimpian, A., Aree, H.C., Markman, E.M., Dweck, C.S. (2007). Subtle linguistic cues affect children's motivation. Association for Psychological Science, 18(4), 314-316.</ref> "having [college aged students] read compelling scientific articles that support one view or the other",<ref name="Aldhous, P. 2008"/> or teaching junior high school students "that every time they try hard and learn something new, their brain forms new connections that, over time, make them smarter".<ref>Dweck, C.S. (2007). The perils and promises of praise. Early Intervention at Every Age, 65(2), 34-39.</ref> These studies all demonstrate how framing and discussing students' work and effort play a considerable role in the type of mindset students develop and students' conceptions of their own ability.
While elements of our personality – such as sensitivity to mistakes and setbacks – can make us predisposed toward holding a certain mindset, we are able to develop and reshape our mindset through our interactions.<ref name="Aldhous, P. 2008">Aldhous, P. (2008). Free your mind and watch it grow. New Scientist, 199(2670), 44-45.</ref> In multiple studies, Dweck and her colleagues noted that alterations in mindset could be achieved through "praising the process through which success was achieved",<ref>Cimpian, A., Aree, H.C., Markman, E.M., Dweck, C.S. (2007). Subtle linguistic cues affect children's motivation. Association for Psychological Science, 18(4), 314-316.</ref> "having [college aged students] read compelling scientific articles that support one view or the other",<ref name="Aldhous, P. 2008"/> or teaching junior high school students "that every time they try hard and learn something new, their brain forms new connections that, over time, make them smarter."<ref>Dweck, C.S. (2007). The perils and promises of praise. Early Intervention at Every Age, 65(2), 34-39.</ref> These studies demonstrate how framing and discussing students' work and effort play a considerable role in the type of mindset students develop and students' conceptions of their own ability.


While a great deal of research in the education field has focused on a students ability to adopt a growth mindset, less attention and focus has been given to teacher mindsets and the role they play in influencing their students. Hattie (2012) states, "differing mindsets, or assumptions, that teachers possess about themselves and their students play a significant role in determining their expectations, teaching practices, and how students perceive their own mindset."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hattie |first1=John |title=Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. |date=2012 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=New York}}</ref> In a recent study by Patrick & Joshi (2019), the way teachers explain growth and fixed mindsets was explored. Using 150 semi-structured interviews, two major findings were revealed. The first finding was that teachers' prior beliefs about learning and learners influenced how they engaged with these mindsets.<ref name="Set in Stone or Willing to Grow">{{cite journal |last1=Patrick |first1=Susan Kemper |last2=Joshi |first2=Ela |title="Set in Stone" or "Willing to Grow"? Teacher sensemaking during a growth mindset initiative |journal=Teaching and Teacher Education |date=2019 |volume=83 |pages=156–167|doi=10.1016/j.tate.2019.04.009 }}</ref> Secondly, it was found that many teachers tended to oversimplify the concepts of a growth and fixed mindset into positive and negative traits.<ref name="Set in Stone or Willing to Grow"/> This suggests the need for more teacher training and support in order for teachers to be able to successfully implement growth mindset initiatives in their classrooms. A study conducted by Seaton (2018), looked specifically at the impact of teacher training aimed at influencing their mindsets and the effect on their resulting practice. The teachers in this study underwent six different training sessions. It was found that the training sessions had an impact on teachers' mindsets & this change was sustained three months after the training as well.<ref name="Empowering teachers to implement a">{{cite journal |last1=Seaton |first1=Fiona S. |title=Empowering teachers to implement a growth mindset |journal=Educational Psychology in Practice |date=2018 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=41–57|doi=10.1080/02667363.2017.1382333 |s2cid=149189021 }}</ref> The results of this study suggest that adults' mindsets are malleable and can shift if the right supports are in place.<ref name="Empowering teachers to implement a"/> This study reinforces the bond between a teacher's own beliefs and how they can strongly influence the mindset of his/her students; therefore, further highlighting the need for proper teacher training in order for mindset initiatives within schools to be fully successful.
While a great deal of research in the field of education has focused on a student's ability to adopt a growth mindset, less attention and focus have been given to teacher mindsets and the role they play in influencing their students. Hattie (2012) states, "differing mindsets, or assumptions, that teachers possess about themselves and their students play a significant role in determining their expectations, teaching practices, and how students perceive their own mindset."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hattie |first1=John |title=Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. |date=2012 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=New York}}</ref> In a recent study, Patrick & Joshi (2019) explored the way teachers explain growth and fixed mindsets. Using 150 semi-structured interviews, two major findings were revealed. The first finding was that teachers' prior beliefs about learning and learners influenced how they engaged with these mindsets.<ref name="Set in Stone or Willing to Grow">{{cite journal |last1=Patrick |first1=Susan Kemper |last2=Joshi |first2=Ela |title="Set in Stone" or "Willing to Grow"? Teacher sensemaking during a growth mindset initiative |journal=Teaching and Teacher Education |date=2019 |volume=83 |pages=156–167|doi=10.1016/j.tate.2019.04.009 }}</ref> Secondly, it was found that many teachers tended to oversimplify the concepts of a growth and fixed mindset into positive and negative traits.<ref name="Set in Stone or Willing to Grow"/> This suggests the need for more teacher training and support in order for teachers to be able to successfully implement growth mindset initiatives in their classrooms. An additional study conducted by Fiona S. Seaton (2018), looked specifically at the impact of teacher training aimed at influencing their mindsets and the effect on their resulting practice. The teachers in this study underwent six different training sessions. Seaton found that the training sessions had an impact on teachers' mindsets and that this change was sustained three months after the training.<ref name="Empowering teachers to implement a">{{cite journal |last1=Seaton |first1=Fiona S. |title=Empowering teachers to implement a growth mindset |journal=Educational Psychology in Practice |date=2018 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=41–57|doi=10.1080/02667363.2017.1382333 |s2cid=149189021 }}</ref> The results of this study suggest that adults' mindsets are malleable and can shift if the right supports are in place.<ref name="Empowering teachers to implement a"/> This study also reinforces the bond between a teacher's own beliefs and how they can strongly influence the mindset of their students; therefore, further highlighting the need for proper teacher training in order for mindset initiatives within schools to be fully successful.


==== Fixed and growth mindsets in males vs. females ====
==== Fixed and growth mindsets in males vs. females ====
Carol Dweck and Jo Boaler have done extensive research on the topics of fixed and growth mindset. However, studies on this topic show that there is a disparity in the fixed and growth mindsets of females and males. In Boaler's Ability and Mathematics: the Mindset Revolution that is Reshaping Education, the author argues that fixed mindset beliefs lead to inequalities in education; these findings partially explain low achievement and participation amongst minorities and female students.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boaler|first=Jo|date=2013|title=Ability and Mathematics: the mindset revolution that is reshaping education|url=http://www.youcubed.org/wp-content/uploads/14_Boaler_FORUM_55_1_web.pdf|journal=Forum|volume=55| issue = 1|pages=143–152|doi=10.2304/forum.2013.55.1.143}}</ref> Boaler's research shows that many women feel as though they are not smart enough nor capable enough to continue in certain subjects, such as STEM areas of academia. Boaler uses Carol Dweck's research showing that "gender differences in mathematics performance only existed among fixed mindset students" (Boaler, 2013).
Carol Dweck and Jo Boaler have done extensive research on the topics of fixed and growth mindset. However, studies on this topic show that there is a disparity in the fixed and growth mindsets of females and males. In Boaler's 2013 article "Ability and Mathematics: the Mindset Revolution that is Reshaping Education", the author argues that fixed mindset beliefs lead to inequalities in education; these findings partially explain low achievement and participation amongst minorities and female students.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boaler|first=Jo|date=2013|title=Ability and Mathematics: the mindset revolution that is reshaping education|url=http://www.youcubed.org/wp-content/uploads/14_Boaler_FORUM_55_1_web.pdf|journal=Forum|volume=55| issue = 1|pages=143–152|doi=10.2304/forum.2013.55.1.143}}</ref> Boaler's research indicates that many women feel as though they are not smart enough nor capable enough to continue in certain subjects, such as [[STEM]] areas of academia. Boaler builds on Carol Dweck's research to show that "gender differences in mathematics performance only existed among fixed mindset students" (Boaler, 2013).


In addition, L.S. Blackwell delivered research exploring if growth mindsets can be promoted within minority groups (Boaler, 2013). This is the mindset in which Boaler and Dweck believe people can gain knowledge. Boaler said, "The key growth mindset message was that effort changes the brain by forming new connections, and that students control this process. The growth mindset intervention halted the students' decline in grades and started the students on a new pathway of improvement and high achievement" (Boaler, 2013). Educational systems focusing on creating a growth mindset environment allow girls to feel like their intelligence is malleable rather than constant.
In addition, L.S. Blackwell delivered research exploring if growth mindsets can be promoted within minority groups<ref>{{Citation |last=Blackwell |first=Lisa S. |title=Intelligence as a Malleable Construct |date=2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_18 |work=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts |pages=263–282 |editor-last=Goldstein |editor-first=Sam |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_18 |isbn=978-1-4939-1562-0 |access-date=2022-05-05 |last2=Rodriguez |first2=Sylvia |last3=Guerra-Carrillo |first3=Belén |editor2-last=Princiotta |editor2-first=Dana |editor3-last=Naglieri |editor3-first=Jack A.}}</ref>. Boaler and Dweck believe people with growth mindsets can gain knowledge. Boaler said, "The key growth mindset message was that effort changes the brain by forming new connections, and that students control this process. The growth mindset intervention halted the students' decline in grades and started the students on a new pathway of improvement and high achievement" (Boaler, 2013, pg. 5). Educational systems focusing on creating a growth mindset environment allow girls to feel like their intelligence is malleable rather than constant.


==== Implications for at risk students ====
==== Implications for at risk students ====
Dweck's research and theory of growth and fixed mindsets has been useful in intervention strategies with at risk students, dispelling negative stereotypes in education held by teachers and students, understanding the impacts of self-theories on resilience, and understanding how process praise can foster a growth mindset and positively impact students' motivation levels.<ref>Veronikas, S., Shaughnessy, M.F. (2004). A reflective conversation with Carol Dweck. Gifted Education International, 19(1), 27-33.</ref> In particular, a study by Rhew, Piro, Goolkasian & Cosentino (2018), suggested that a growth mindset intervention can increase the motivation levels of adolescent special education participants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhew |first1=Emily |last2=Piro |first2=Jody S. |last3=Goolkasian |first3=Pauline |last4=Cosentino |first4=Patricia |date=2018 |title=The effects of a growth mindset on self-efficacy and motivation |journal=Cogent Education |volume=5 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/2331186X.2018.1492337|doi-access=free }}</ref> In another study, it was suggested that substance use has adverse effects on adolescent reasoning.<ref name="Growth Mindset Can Reduce the Adver">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Cuicui |last2=Luo |first2=Jie |last3=Nie |first3=Peixin |last4=Wang |first4=Daoyang |title=Growth Mindset Can Reduce the Adverse Effect of Substance Use on Adolescent Reasoning |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=10 |pages=1852 |date=2019 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01852|pmid=31474906 |pmc=6705219 }}</ref> Developing a growth mindset in these adolescents was shown to reduce this adverse effect. These studies further illustrate how educators can use intervention strategies, targeting a growth mindset, by allowing students to see that their behaviour can be changed with effort.<ref name="Growth Mindset Can Reduce the Adver"/>
Dweck's research on the theory of growth and fixed mindsets has been useful in intervention strategies with at risk students, dispelling negative stereotypes in education held by teachers and students, understanding the impacts of self-theories on resilience, and understanding how process praise can foster a growth mindset and positively impact students' motivation levels.<ref>Veronikas, S., Shaughnessy, M.F. (2004). A reflective conversation with Carol Dweck. Gifted Education International, 19(1), 27-33.</ref> In particular, a study by Rhew et al. (2018), suggested that a growth mindset intervention can increase the motivation levels of adolescent special education participants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhew |first1=Emily |last2=Piro |first2=Jody S. |last3=Goolkasian |first3=Pauline |last4=Cosentino |first4=Patricia |date=2018 |title=The effects of a growth mindset on self-efficacy and motivation |journal=Cogent Education |volume=5 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/2331186X.2018.1492337|doi-access=free }}</ref> In another study by Wang et al. (2019) it was suggested that substance use has adverse effects on adolescent reasoning.<ref name="Growth Mindset Can Reduce the Adver">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Cuicui |last2=Luo |first2=Jie |last3=Nie |first3=Peixin |last4=Wang |first4=Daoyang |title=Growth Mindset Can Reduce the Adverse Effect of Substance Use on Adolescent Reasoning |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=10 |pages=1852 |date=2019 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01852|pmid=31474906 |pmc=6705219 }}</ref> Developing a growth mindset in these adolescents was shown to reduce this adverse effect. These studies further illustrate how educators can use intervention strategies, targeting a growth mindset, by allowing students to see that their behavior can be changed with effort.<ref name="Growth Mindset Can Reduce the Adver"/>


==== Criticism ====
==== Criticism ====
{{Further|Carol Dweck#Criticism}}
{{Further|Carol Dweck#Criticism}}
In recent years, there has been criticism leveled at "growth mindset" as a concept, and the related research that has been carried out.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moreau|first1=David|last2=Macnamara|first2=B|last3=Hambrick|first3=D|date=2019-02-01|title=Overstating the Role of Environmental Factors in Success: A Cautionary Note|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=28–33|doi=10.1177/0963721418797300|s2cid=149536001|url=http://psyarxiv.com/sv9pz/|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In recent years, there has been criticism leveled at "growth mindset" as a concept, and the related research that has been carried out. Moreau et al.
(2019) "suggest that overemphasizing the malleability of abilities and other traits can have negative consequences for individuals, science, and society." <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moreau|first1=David|last2=Macnamara|first2=B|last3=Hambrick|first3=D|date=2019-02-01|title=Overstating the Role of Environmental Factors in Success: A Cautionary Note|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=28–33|doi=10.1177/0963721418797300|s2cid=149536001|url=http://psyarxiv.com/sv9pz/|doi-access=free}}</ref>


==== Benefit mindset ====
==== Benefit mindset ====
Line 95: Line 97:


=== Global mindset ===
=== Global mindset ===
Originating from the study of organizational leadership and coinciding with the growth of multinational corporations in the 1980s, organizations observed that the effectiveness of their executives did not necessarily translate cross-culturally. Global mindset emerged as an explanation (Javidan & Walker, 2013). Essentially, leaders in cross-cultural contexts were hypothesized to need an additional skill, ability, or proficiency (i.e. a global mindset) to enable effectiveness regardless of the culture or context (Perlmutter, 1969; Rhinesmith, 1992). The changes implied in such need have been termed [[cultural agility]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=CALIGIURI|first=PAULA|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1152067760|title=BUILD YOUR CULTURAL AGILITY : the nine competencies you need to be a successful global professional.|date=2021|publisher=KOGAN PAGE|isbn=978-1-78966-661-8|location=[S.l.]|oclc=1152067760}}</ref>
Originating from the study of organizational leadership and coinciding with the growth of multinational corporations in the 1980s, organizations observed that the effectiveness of their executives did not necessarily translate cross-culturally. Global mindset emerged as an explanation (Javidan & Walker, 2013). Leaders in cross-cultural contexts were hypothesized to need an additional skill, ability, or proficiency (i.e. a global mindset) to enable effectiveness regardless of the culture or context (Perlmutter, 1969; Rhinesmith, 1992). The changes implied in such need have been termed [[cultural agility]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=CALIGIURI|first=PAULA|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1152067760|title=BUILD YOUR CULTURAL AGILITY : the nine competencies you need to be a successful global professional.|date=2021|publisher=KOGAN PAGE|isbn=978-1-78966-661-8|location=[S.l.]|oclc=1152067760}}</ref>


One of the defining characteristics of the study of global mindset is the variety in which scholars conceptualize and operationalize the construct; and yet; scholars typically agree that global mindset and its development increases global effectiveness for both individuals and organizations (French & Chang, 2016).
One of the defining characteristics of the study of global mindset is the variety in which scholars conceptualize and operationalize the construct. Yet, scholars typically agree that global mindset and its development increase global effectiveness for both individuals and organizations (French & Chang, 2016).


===Abundance and scarcity===
===Abundance and scarcity===
{{Main|Abundance mindset}}
{{Main|Abundance mindset}}
Those with abundance mindset believe that there are enough resources for everyone, while those with the scarcity mindset believe that there is a limited number of resources and that [[Zero-sum game|one's gain must entail another's loss]], leading to competition for resources.
Those with abundance mindset believe that there are enough resources for everyone, while those with the scarcity mindset believe that there is a limited number of resources and that [[Zero-sum game|one's gain must entail another's loss]], leading to competition for resources <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hope |first=Joan |date=2022-01 |title=Adopt an abundance mindset to boost your leadership potential |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dhe.31204 |journal=Disability Compliance for Higher Education |language=en |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=8–8 |doi=10.1002/dhe.31204 |issn=1086-1335}}</ref>.


===Productive and defensive===
===Productive and defensive===
According to [[Chris Argyris]] (2004), there are two dominant mindsets in organizations: the productive mindset and the defensive mindset.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hbswk.hbs.edu/archive/4456.html|title=Surfacing Your Underground Organization |date=2004-11-01}}</ref> The productive mindset seeks out valid knowledge that is testable. The productive reasoning mindset creates informed choices and makes reasoning transparent.
According to [[Chris Argyris]] (2004), there are two dominant mindsets in organizations: the productive mindset and the defensive mindset.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hbswk.hbs.edu/archive/4456.html|title=Surfacing Your Underground Organization |date=2004-11-01}}</ref> The productive mindset seeks out valid knowledge that is testable, while thee productive reasoning mindset creates informed choices and makes reasoning transparent.


The defensive mindset, on the other hand, is self-protective and self-deceptive. When this mindset is active, people or organizations only seek out information that will protect them. Truth can be shut out when it is seen as threatening. The defensive mindset may lead to learning based on false assumptions or prevent learning altogether (Argyris, 2004).
The defensive mindset, on the other hand, is self-protective and self-deceptive. When this mindset is active, people or organizations only seek out information that will protect them. Truth can be shut out when it is seen as threatening. The defensive mindset may lead to learning based on false assumptions or prevent learning altogether (Argyris, 2004).

Revision as of 01:30, 5 May 2022

"Mentality" redirects here. For other uses, see Mentality (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Mindset (disambiguation).

In decision theory and general systems theory, a mindset is a set of assumptions, methods, or notions held by one or more people or groups of people.[citation needed] A mindset may also arise from a person's world view or philosophy of life.[1]

A mindset may be so firmly established that it creates a powerful incentive to continue to adopt or accept prior behaviors, choices, or tools.[citation needed] The latter phenomenon is also sometimes described as cognitive inertia, or "groupthink", and it is often difficult to counteract its effects upon analysis and decision making processes.

In cognitive psychology, a mindset represents the cognitive processes activated in response to a given task (French, 2016).

History of research

Some of the earliest empirical explorations of mindset originated in the early 1900s (Gollwitzer 1990, 2012). These studies are identified as foundational and precursory for the study of cognition (Gollwitzer 1990, 2012). The attention to mindset within the study of cognitive psychology has continued relatively unabated. In addition to the field of cognitive psychology, the use of mindset is evident within the social sciences and several other fields (e.g., positive psychology). A characteristic of this area of study, in all its various manifestations, is the fragment use of mindset throughout the academy (e.g. French, 2016).

In politics

A political example is the "Cold War mindset" prevalent in both the U.S. and USSR, which included absolute trust in two-player game theory, in the integrity of command chain, in control of nuclear materials, and in the mutual assured destruction of both in the case of war. Although most consider that this mindset usefully served to prevent an attack by either country, the assumptions underlying deterrence theory have made assessments of the efficacy of the Cold War mindset a matter of some controversy[2].

Most theorists consider that the key responsibility of an embedded power group is to challenge the assumptions that comprise the group's own mindset.[citation needed] According to these commentators, power groups that fail to review or revise their mindsets with sufficient regularity cannot hold power indefinitely, as a single mindset is unlikely to possess the flexibility and adaptability needed to address all future events. For example, the variations in mindset between Democratic Party and Republican Party Presidents in the U.S. may have made that country more able to challenge assumptions than the Kremlin with its more static bureaucracy.

Modern military theory attempts to challenge entrenched mindsets in dealing with asymmetric warfare, terrorism, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. In combination, these threats represent "a revolution in military affairs" and require very rapid adaptation to new threats and circumstances. In this context, the cost of not implementing adaptive mindsets cannot be afforded.

In system thinking

Building on Magoroh Maruyama's concept of Mindscape,[3][4] Mindset Theory includes cultural and social orientation type values: Hierarchical Individualism (HI), Egalitarian Individualism (EI), Hierarchical Collectivism (HC), Egalitarian Collectivism (EC), Hierarchic Synergism (HS), Egalitarian Synergism (ES), Hierarchical Populism (HP), and Egalitarian Populism (EP).[5]

Collective

Erikson's (1974) analysis of group-identities and what he calls a "life-plan" is relevant to the embodiment of a collective mindset. He recounts the example of American Indians, who were meant to undergo a reeducation process meant to imbue a modern "life-plan" that aimed for a house and a richness expressed by a filled bank account. Erikson writes that the Indians' collective historic identity as buffalo hunters was oriented around such fundamentally different reasons/goals that even communication about the divergent "life plans" was difficult (Erikson, 1974).

There is a double relation between the institution embodying for example an entrepreneurial mindset and its entrepreneurial performance. Firstly, an institution with an entrepreneurial philosophy will set entrepreneurial goals and strategies as a whole, but maybe even more importantly, it will foster an entrepreneurial milieu, allowing each entity to pursue emergent opportunities. In short, philosophical stance codified in the mind, hence as mindset, lead to a climate that in turn causes values that lead to practice[6].

Collective mindsets in this sense are described in such works as Hutchin's "Cognition in the wild" (1995), who analyzes a whole team of naval navigators as the cognitive unit or as computational system, or Senges' "Knowledge entrepreneurship in universities" (2007). There are also parallels to the emerging field of "collective intelligence" (e.g. (Zara, 2004)) and exploiting the "Wisdom of the crowds" (Surowiecki, 2005) of stakeholders. Zara notes that since collective reflection is more explicit, discursive, and conversational, it therefore needs a good ¿gestell?—especially when it comes to information and communication technology.

Most historians use the concept of mentality or mindset to denote very slowly changing mental dispositions active over longer periods of time, but occasionally there have been efforts to also apply it to much more rapidly changing historical situations such as the French revolution (Michel Vovelle) or the short period of Allied occupation of Germany after World War II (Hentschel 2007).

Specific theories

Types and theories

Variation within the study of mindsets includes how to define, measure, and conceptualize a mindset as well as the types of mindset identified. Substantial variations exist even among scholars within the same discipline, studying the same mindset (French, 2016). Nevertheless, any discussion of mindset should include recognition concerning the numerous, varied, and growing number of mindsets and mindset theories that receive attention in multiple disciplines throughout academia.

Mindset agency theory

Mindset theory, as based on the cultural values defined by Sagiv and Schwarts,[7] explains the nature, functions, and variables that make up the characteristics of personality.[8] The mindscape theory and cultural values outlined by Sagive and Schwarts combine to make a more comprehensive whole of mindset agency theory.[9]

Mindscape theory

The Myer's–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) deals with psychological functions that, paired with values of social attitude, combine in certain ways to generate personality patterns called "types" that may be evaluated by exploring individual preferences (which change with context). Different is Maruyama's mindscape theory which works with epistemological types. Mindscapes seek to measure individuals on a scale of characteristics and place them into four categories of personalities that make up the population of the world.[10][11] Each category contains differing views toward information, perception, logic, and ethics. Hierarchical Bureaucrats generally view the world as having natural order with competition and consequences much like natural selection. Independent Princes view the world as random, individualistic, and chaotic with a natural decay that is inevitable. Social Reformers view the world as a balance that can be maintained by symbiosis between everything. Generative Revolutionaries view the world as potential for growth through interaction and symbiosis; change is encouraged.

Sagiv-Schwarts cultural values

Sagiv and Schwarts posited three bi-polar dimensions to culture based on values.[7] These dimensions contain opposites in the realms of cognitive, figurative, and operative values:

  • Cognitive: embeddedness or autonomy
  • Figurative: mastery or harmony
  • Operative: hierarchy or egalitarian

Fixed and growth mindset

See also: Self-actualization § Abraham Maslow's concept of self-actualization

According to Carol Dweck, individuals can be placed on a continuum according to their implicit views of "where ability comes from". The two categorical extremes are fixed mindsets and growth mindsets. In particular, an individual's mindset impacts "motivation to practice and learn".[12] A growth mindset is seen as more positive and helpful, with most research focusing on how to develop this mindset.

Fixed Mindset

Those with a fixed mindset believe "intelligence is static" and there is very little to be done to improve ability.[13] Feedback is seen as an "evaluation of their underlying ability" since success is seen only as a result of this innate ability, not the effort put in. Failure is much more intimidating since it "suggests constraints or limits they would not be able to overcome".[12]

Growth Mindset

Those with a growth mindset believe "intelligence can be developed" and their abilities can be enhanced through the learning process.[13] Feedback and failure are seen as opportunities for increasing ability signaling the "need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice, and master the new learning opportunity".[12]

Grit closely relates to a growth mindset. Grit can be defined as the combination of determination and perseverance.[14] Keown and Bourke discussed the importance for those growing up to have a combination of not only a growth mindset but also grit. Their 2019 study found that those in a lower economic status had a higher chance of success if they had a growth mindset and were willing to work hard through tribulation[15].

Classroom Implications

A large part of Dweck's research on mindsets has been done in the field of education and how these mindsets affect a student's performance in the classroom. In order for students to effectively adopt a growth mindset, a classroom culture needs to be established that nurtures this type of thinking. One of the ways educators can do this is by creating a growth-mindset culture in their classroom that provides the right kind of praise and encouragement.[16] According to Dweck (2010), "praising students for the process they have engaged in—the effort they applied, the strategies they used, the choices they made, the persistence they displayed, and so on—yields more long-term benefits than telling them they are 'smart' when they succeed".[16] As such, it is important for educators to carefully craft and design meaningful learning activities for their students to engage in the classroom. According to Dweck (2010), "the teacher should portray challenges as fun and exciting, while portraying easy tasks as boring and less useful for the brain".[16] Students who are engaged in more challenging learning activities have more opportunities to make mistakes and struggle, allowing the teacher to interject with new strategies to try while praising students for the work they have done so far.

A second strategy to promote a growth-mindset culture in the classroom is to explicitly teach lessons related to what it means to adopt a growth mindset. Possible activities include establishing personal goals, writing letters, or having students share with one another something they used to be poor at and now are very good at.[16] In a recent study by Hussein (2018), the effects of reflective journal writing on students' growth mindset was examined. It was found that the use of journaling could positively affect a student's learning process by improving their conceptual knowledge, promoting growth mindset, and enhancing understanding of their thoughts through writing.[17]

The way educators evaluate their students' work and communicate their progress can also contribute to the establishment of a growth mindset culture in the classroom. More specifically, Dweck (2010) identifies the word "yet" as a valuable tool to assess students' learning. If an educator hears students saying they are not good at something or can't do something, it is important for the teacher to interject with the words "not yet" to reinforce the idea that ability and motivation are fluid.[16] Overall, a classroom that includes challenging learning tasks, praising of the process, and explicit growth mindset teaching and assessment, is a classroom where students will have the tools needed to become lifelong learners.

Reshaping mindsets in students and educators

While elements of our personality – such as sensitivity to mistakes and setbacks – can make us predisposed toward holding a certain mindset, we are able to develop and reshape our mindset through our interactions.[18] In multiple studies, Dweck and her colleagues noted that alterations in mindset could be achieved through "praising the process through which success was achieved",[19] "having [college aged students] read compelling scientific articles that support one view or the other",[18] or teaching junior high school students "that every time they try hard and learn something new, their brain forms new connections that, over time, make them smarter."[20] These studies demonstrate how framing and discussing students' work and effort play a considerable role in the type of mindset students develop and students' conceptions of their own ability.

While a great deal of research in the field of education has focused on a student's ability to adopt a growth mindset, less attention and focus have been given to teacher mindsets and the role they play in influencing their students. Hattie (2012) states, "differing mindsets, or assumptions, that teachers possess about themselves and their students play a significant role in determining their expectations, teaching practices, and how students perceive their own mindset."[21] In a recent study, Patrick & Joshi (2019) explored the way teachers explain growth and fixed mindsets. Using 150 semi-structured interviews, two major findings were revealed. The first finding was that teachers' prior beliefs about learning and learners influenced how they engaged with these mindsets.[22] Secondly, it was found that many teachers tended to oversimplify the concepts of a growth and fixed mindset into positive and negative traits.[22] This suggests the need for more teacher training and support in order for teachers to be able to successfully implement growth mindset initiatives in their classrooms. An additional study conducted by Fiona S. Seaton (2018), looked specifically at the impact of teacher training aimed at influencing their mindsets and the effect on their resulting practice. The teachers in this study underwent six different training sessions. Seaton found that the training sessions had an impact on teachers' mindsets and that this change was sustained three months after the training.[23] The results of this study suggest that adults' mindsets are malleable and can shift if the right supports are in place.[23] This study also reinforces the bond between a teacher's own beliefs and how they can strongly influence the mindset of their students; therefore, further highlighting the need for proper teacher training in order for mindset initiatives within schools to be fully successful.

Fixed and growth mindsets in males vs. females

Carol Dweck and Jo Boaler have done extensive research on the topics of fixed and growth mindset. However, studies on this topic show that there is a disparity in the fixed and growth mindsets of females and males. In Boaler's 2013 article "Ability and Mathematics: the Mindset Revolution that is Reshaping Education", the author argues that fixed mindset beliefs lead to inequalities in education; these findings partially explain low achievement and participation amongst minorities and female students.[24] Boaler's research indicates that many women feel as though they are not smart enough nor capable enough to continue in certain subjects, such as STEM areas of academia. Boaler builds on Carol Dweck's research to show that "gender differences in mathematics performance only existed among fixed mindset students" (Boaler, 2013).

In addition, L.S. Blackwell delivered research exploring if growth mindsets can be promoted within minority groups[25]. Boaler and Dweck believe people with growth mindsets can gain knowledge. Boaler said, "The key growth mindset message was that effort changes the brain by forming new connections, and that students control this process. The growth mindset intervention halted the students' decline in grades and started the students on a new pathway of improvement and high achievement" (Boaler, 2013, pg. 5). Educational systems focusing on creating a growth mindset environment allow girls to feel like their intelligence is malleable rather than constant.

Implications for at risk students

Dweck's research on the theory of growth and fixed mindsets has been useful in intervention strategies with at risk students, dispelling negative stereotypes in education held by teachers and students, understanding the impacts of self-theories on resilience, and understanding how process praise can foster a growth mindset and positively impact students' motivation levels.[26] In particular, a study by Rhew et al. (2018), suggested that a growth mindset intervention can increase the motivation levels of adolescent special education participants.[27] In another study by Wang et al. (2019) it was suggested that substance use has adverse effects on adolescent reasoning.[28] Developing a growth mindset in these adolescents was shown to reduce this adverse effect. These studies further illustrate how educators can use intervention strategies, targeting a growth mindset, by allowing students to see that their behavior can be changed with effort.[28]

Criticism

Further information: Carol Dweck § Criticism

In recent years, there has been criticism leveled at "growth mindset" as a concept, and the related research that has been carried out. Moreau et al.

(2019) "suggest that overemphasizing the malleability of abilities and other traits can have negative consequences for individuals, science, and society." [29]

Benefit mindset

In 2015, Ashley Buchanan and Margaret L. Kern proposed a complementary evolution to the fixed and growth mindset called the benefit mindset. The benefit mindset describes society's everyday leaders who promote well-being on both an individual and a collective level. That is, people who discover their strengths to make valuable contributions to causes that are greater than the self. They question why they do what they do, positioning their actions within a purposeful context.[30]

Buchanan and Kern argue "creating cultures of contribution and everyday leadership could be one of the best points of leverage we have for simultaneously bringing out the best in people, organizations and the planet."

Global mindset

Originating from the study of organizational leadership and coinciding with the growth of multinational corporations in the 1980s, organizations observed that the effectiveness of their executives did not necessarily translate cross-culturally. Global mindset emerged as an explanation (Javidan & Walker, 2013). Leaders in cross-cultural contexts were hypothesized to need an additional skill, ability, or proficiency (i.e. a global mindset) to enable effectiveness regardless of the culture or context (Perlmutter, 1969; Rhinesmith, 1992). The changes implied in such need have been termed cultural agility.[31]

One of the defining characteristics of the study of global mindset is the variety in which scholars conceptualize and operationalize the construct. Yet, scholars typically agree that global mindset and its development increase global effectiveness for both individuals and organizations (French & Chang, 2016).

Abundance and scarcity

Main article: Abundance mindset

Those with abundance mindset believe that there are enough resources for everyone, while those with the scarcity mindset believe that there is a limited number of resources and that one's gain must entail another's loss, leading to competition for resources [32].

Productive and defensive

According to Chris Argyris (2004), there are two dominant mindsets in organizations: the productive mindset and the defensive mindset.[33] The productive mindset seeks out valid knowledge that is testable, while thee productive reasoning mindset creates informed choices and makes reasoning transparent.

The defensive mindset, on the other hand, is self-protective and self-deceptive. When this mindset is active, people or organizations only seek out information that will protect them. Truth can be shut out when it is seen as threatening. The defensive mindset may lead to learning based on false assumptions or prevent learning altogether (Argyris, 2004).

See also

Dual mentality

^

Notes

  1. ^ "What is a Worldview?". Retrieved 2019-12-10.
  2. ^ McNaugher, Thomas L. (-001-11-30T00:00:00+00:00). "Planning Future Defense: Time to Confront the Cold War Mindset". Brookings. Retrieved 2022-05-05. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ Maruyama, M. (1980). Mindscapes and Science Theories, Current Anthropology, Vol. 21, No. 5. (Oct., 1980), pp. 589-608
  4. ^ Maruyama, M. (1988). Dynamics among Business Practice, Aesthetics, Science, Politics and Religion. Cultural Dynamics 1988; 1; 309-335
  5. ^ Yolles, M.I, Fink, G., 2014, Personality, pathology and mindsets: part 1-3. Vol. 43 n.(1)
  6. ^ Hitt, Michael A. (2011). STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT. Mason, Ohio: South-Western: Cengage Learning.
  7. ^ a b Sagiv, Lilach; Schwartz, Shalom H. (2007). "Cultural values in organisations: insights for Europe". European Journal of International Management. 1 (3): 176. doi:10.1504/EJIM.2007.014692. ISSN 1751-6757.
  8. ^ Yolles, Maurice; Fink, Gerhard (2016-11-20). "Maruyama Mindscapes, Myers-Briggs Type Indicators and Cultural Agency Mindset Types". SSRN 2873082.
  9. ^ Yolles, Maurice; Fink, Gerhard (2013). "Exploring Mindset Agency Theory". SSRN 2369874.
  10. ^ Maruyama, Magoroh (July 1988). "Dynamics among Business Practice, Aesthetics, Science, Politics and Religion". Cultural Dynamics. 1 (3): 309–335. doi:10.1177/092137408800100304. ISSN 0921-3740. S2CID 143782277.
  11. ^ Maruyama, Magoroh; Beals, Kenneth L.; Bharati, Agehananda; Fuchs, Helmuth; Gardner, Peter M.; Guilmet, George M.; Hahn, Robert A.; Kamau, Lucy Jayne; Kronenfeld, David B.; Kursh, Charlotte O.; Meeker, Joseph W. (October 1980). "Mindscapes and Science Theories [and Comments and Reply]". Current Anthropology. 21 (5): 589–608. doi:10.1086/202539. ISSN 0011-3204.
  12. ^ a b c Yousefi, H., & Khalkhali, V. (2020). The Effects of Mastery Versus Social-Comparison Praise on Students’ Persistence: A Role of Fixed Versus Growth Mindset. Education Sciences & Psychology, 55(1), 3–9.
  13. ^ a b Bates, Bob (2016). Learning theories simplified : 100+ theories and models from great thinkers...and how to apply them to teaching. London. ISBN 978-1-4739-2533-5. OCLC 926667644.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  14. ^ KEOWN, S. R., & BOURKE, B. (2019). A Qualitative Investigation of Fixed Versus Growth Mindsets of Third and Fourth Grade Students. Education, 140(2), 51–58.
  15. ^ Keown, Stacey R.; Bourke, Brian (2019-12-22). "A QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF FIXED VERSUS GROWTH MINDSETS OF THIRD AND FOURTH GRADE STUDENTS". Education. 140 (2): 51–59.
  16. ^ a b c d e Dweck, Carol S. (September 2010). "Even Geniuses Work Hard". Educational Leadership. 68 (1): 16–20.
  17. ^ Hussein, Hinda (2018). "Examining the Effects of Reflective Journals on Students' Growth Mindset: A Case Study of Tertiary Level EFL Students in the United Arab Emirates". IAFOR Journal of Education. 6 (2): 33–50. doi:10.22492/ije.6.2.03.
  18. ^ a b Aldhous, P. (2008). Free your mind and watch it grow. New Scientist, 199(2670), 44-45.
  19. ^ Cimpian, A., Aree, H.C., Markman, E.M., Dweck, C.S. (2007). Subtle linguistic cues affect children's motivation. Association for Psychological Science, 18(4), 314-316.
  20. ^ Dweck, C.S. (2007). The perils and promises of praise. Early Intervention at Every Age, 65(2), 34-39.
  21. ^ Hattie, John (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. New York: Taylor and Francis.
  22. ^ a b Patrick, Susan Kemper; Joshi, Ela (2019). ""Set in Stone" or "Willing to Grow"? Teacher sensemaking during a growth mindset initiative". Teaching and Teacher Education. 83: 156–167. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2019.04.009.
  23. ^ a b Seaton, Fiona S. (2018). "Empowering teachers to implement a growth mindset". Educational Psychology in Practice. 34 (1): 41–57. doi:10.1080/02667363.2017.1382333. S2CID 149189021.
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  27. ^ Rhew, Emily; Piro, Jody S.; Goolkasian, Pauline; Cosentino, Patricia (2018). "The effects of a growth mindset on self-efficacy and motivation". Cogent Education. 5 (1). doi:10.1080/2331186X.2018.1492337.
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  33. ^ "Surfacing Your Underground Organization". 2004-11-01.

References

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  • French, R. P., II. (2016). The fuzziness of mindsets: Divergent conceptualizations and characterizations of mindset theory and praxis. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 24(4), 673–691. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-09-2014-0797 https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJOA-09-2014-0797
  • French, R. P., II, & Chang, H. (2016). Conceptual re-imagining of global "mindset": Knowledge as prime in the development of global leaders. Journal of International Organizations Studies, 7(1), 49–62. https://web.archive.org/web/20180712211434/http://journal-iostudies.org/sites/journal-iostudies.org/files/JIOS-ReviewEssay_GlobalMindset.pdf
  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (1990). Action phases and mind-sets. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), The handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 52–92). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (2012). Mindset theory of action phases. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 526–545). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
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