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| [[Chicken breast]] || 0.005%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science">{{cite web | vauthors = Penner KP, Clarke MP | date = September 1990 |url=http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt |title = Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet | publisher = Iowa State Animal Science |access-date=16 September 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324234102/http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt |archive-date=24 March 2009}}</ref> || White meat<ref name="auto"/>
| [[Chicken breast]] || 0.005%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science">{{cite web | vauthors = Penner KP, Clarke MP | date = September 1990 |url=http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt |title = Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet | publisher = Iowa State Animal Science |access-date=16 September 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324234102/http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt |archive-date=24 March 2009}}</ref> || White meat<ref name="auto"/>
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|[[Turkey as food|Turkey breast]]
|0.008%<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Çelen |first=Mehmet Fatih |last2=Söğüt |first2=Bünyamin |last3=Zorba |first3=Ömer |last4=Demirulus |first4=Hüsrev |last5=Tekeli |first5=Ahmet |date=2016-08 |title=Comparison of normal and PSE turkey breast meat for chemical composition, pH, color, myoglobin, and drip loss |url=http://www.scielo.br/j/rbz/a/xPhkznw5VGbVmyLX6D5bHkD/?lang=en |journal=Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia |language=en |volume=45 |pages=441–444 |doi=10.1590/S1806-92902016000800003 |issn=1516-3598}}</ref>
|White meat
|-
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| [[Chicken thigh]] || 0.18 – 0.20%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Dark meat
| [[Chicken thigh]] || 0.18 – 0.20%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Dark meat

Revision as of 21:27, 20 March 2023

For other uses, see Red meat (disambiguation).
Thinly sliced raw beef is red.
Roast beef is a darker color after being cooked.

In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw and a dark color after it is cooked, in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before and after cooking.[1][2] In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white.[3][4] In nutritional science, red meat is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or thigh).

Definition

Concentration of myoglobin by percentage of mass
Name Myoglobin USDA category
Chicken breast 0.005%[5] White meat[6]
Turkey breast 0.008%[7] White meat
Chicken thigh 0.18 – 0.20%[5] Dark meat
Turkey thigh 0.25 – 0.30%[5] Dark meat
Pork 0.10 – 0.30%[5] Red meat[6]
Veal 0.10 – 0.30%[5] Red meat[6]
Beef 0.40 – 1.00%[5] Red meat[6]
Old beef 1.50 – 2.00%[5] Red meat[6]
Cooked duck with potatoes, showing the red color of the meat

Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or "gamey" mammals (for example, beef, horse meat, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white. Poultry is white. Most cuts of pork are red, others are white.[8] Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. (French: viandes noires — "dark meats".)[4] Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.

According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat)[5] from chicken.[6] Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.[9][10]

Nutrition

Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B12, thiamin and riboflavin).[11] Red meat is a source of lipoic acid.

Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D.[12] Offal such as liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.[13]

In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz (230 g) of fish each week.[14][15] In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations.[14] The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.[14]

Health effects

See also: Beef § Health concerns, and Meat § Health

Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer (particularly colorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality.[16][17][18][19] These associations are strongest for processed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages.[20]

A 2021 umbrella review that sees an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.[21]

A 2022 study challenged the dose-response relationship using a newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF). It found weak evidence available regarding whether eating red meat increases the risk of death. The authors conclude that the quality of the available evidence is insufficient to make stronger or more conclusive recommendations regarding the health effects of eating red meat.[22] However the BPRF approach has been criticised for being overly simplistic.[23]

Cancer

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) classifies processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer."[24] Unprocessed red meat is categorised as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."[20][25] Positive associations have also been observed between red meat consumption and increased risks of pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer but the link is not as clear.[20]

The American Institute for Cancer Research, Cancer Research UK and World Cancer Research Fund International have stated there is strong evidence that consumption of processed red meat is a cause of colorectal cancer and there is probable evidence that unprocessed red meat is a cause of cancer.[26][27][28] Put in perspective, in the UK, 56 out of 1000 people who eat the lowest amount of processed meat will develop colorectal cancer (5.6%) while 66 out of 1000 high processed meat eaters will develop colorectal cancer (6.6%).[29]

Mechanisms

Nitrates and nitrites found in processed meat can be converted by the human body into nitrosamines that can be carcinogenic, causing mutation in the colorectal cell line, thereby causing tumorigenesis and eventually leading to cancer.[30] Processed meat is more carcinogenic compared to red meat because of the abundance of potent nitrosyl-heme molecules that form N-nitroso compounds.[31]

Meat with a dark exterior, common in high temperature cooking

A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic amines (HCAs).[31] Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.[32]

Cardiovascular disease and stroke

See also: Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease

Red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease, high blood pressure and stroke, but it is unclear whether the effect is causal.[33] Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels of blood cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and heme iron, which may precipitate atherogenesis in cerebral arteries, leading to stroke.[34]

Diabetes

A 2022 umbrella review found that four additional 100g of red meat intake per day, was associated with a 17% increased risk of diabetes.[35]

A 2022 review of randomized control trials found that eating red meat does not increase risk factors for diabetes mellitus.[36] Another review found that eating red meat does not worsen biomarkers of glycemic control or inflammation in adults at risk for cardiometabolic disease.[37]

However, 2017 prospective studies showed that daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consuming whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes.[38] One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".[39]

References

  1. ^ "Red Meat". thefreedictionary.com.
  2. ^ "White Meat". thefreedictionary.com.
  3. ^ Reinagel M (2 January 2013). "Color Confusion: Identifying Red Meat and White Meat". Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
  4. ^ a b Larousse Gastronomique, first edition
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Penner KP, Clarke MP (September 1990). "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet". Iowa State Animal Science. Archived from the original on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
  6. ^ a b c d e f "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
  7. ^ Çelen, Mehmet Fatih; Söğüt, Bünyamin; Zorba, Ömer; Demirulus, Hüsrev; Tekeli, Ahmet (2016-08). "Comparison of normal and PSE turkey breast meat for chemical composition, pH, color, myoglobin, and drip loss". Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia. 45: 441–444. doi:10.1590/S1806-92902016000800003. ISSN 1516-3598. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ Larousse Gastronomique, 1961, s.v. pork
  9. ^ Dougherty PH (15 January 1987). "Dressing Pork for Success". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017.
  10. ^ Hall T (13 November 1991). "And This Little Piggy Is Now on the Menu". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017.
  11. ^ "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet" (PDF). Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service. September 1990. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2006.
  12. ^ Williams PG (September 2007). "Nutritional composition of red meat". University of Wollongong. Archived from the original on 10 March 2011.
  13. ^ Schmid A, Walther B (July 2013). "Natural vitamin D content in animal products". Advances in Nutrition. 4 (4): 453–62. doi:10.3945/an.113.003780. PMC 3941824. PMID 23858093.
  14. ^ a b c "Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat". Harvard School of Public Health. 2012. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009.
  15. ^ "MyPlate Protein foods". USDA. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013.
  16. ^ Abete, Itziar; Romaguera, Dora; Vieira, Ana Rita; Munain, Adolfo Lopez de; Norat, Teresa (September 2014). "Association between total, processed, red and white meat consumption and all-cause, CVD and IHD mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies". British Journal of Nutrition. 112 (5): 762–775. doi:10.1017/S000711451400124X. ISSN 0007-1145. PMID 24932617. S2CID 14401281.
  17. ^ Neuenschwander, Manuela; Ballon, Aurélie; Weber, Katharina S.; Norat, Teresa; Aune, Dagfinn; Schwingshackl, Lukas; Schlesinger, Sabrina (3 July 2019). "Role of diet in type 2 diabetes incidence: umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective observational studies". BMJ. 366: l2368. doi:10.1136/bmj.l2368. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 6607211. PMID 31270064.
  18. ^ Mozaffarian, Dariush (12 January 2016). "Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity". Circulation. 133 (2): 187–225. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018585. PMC 4814348. PMID 26746178.
  19. ^ Qian, Frank; Riddle, Matthew C.; Wylie-Rosett, Judith; Hu, Frank B. (2020). "Red and Processed Meats and Health Risks: How Strong is the Evidence?". Diabetes Care. 43 (2): 265–271. doi:10.2337/dci19-0063. PMC 6971786. PMID 31959642.
  20. ^ a b c International Agency for Research on Cancer (26 October 2015), IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 10 November 2015
  21. ^ Huang Y, Cao D, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu L, Wei Q (September 2021). "Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review". Food Chem (Review). 356: 129697. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697. PMID 33838606.
  22. ^ Lescinsky H, Afshin A, Ashbaugh C, Bisignano C, Brauer M, et al. (October 2022). "Health effects associated with consumption of unprocessed red meat: a Burden of Proof study". Nat Med (Systematic review). 28 (10): 2075–2082. doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01968-z. PMC 9556326. PMID 36216940.
  23. ^ Lewis, Tanya. "New System Ranks Evidence for Health Risks of Eating Red Meat, Smoking, and More—But Critics Say It's Overly Simplistic". Scientific American. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
  24. ^ "Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat". World Health Organization. 1 October 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2019.
  25. ^ "Press release: IARC monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat" (PDF). International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization. 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
  26. ^ "Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?". Cancer Research UK. 25 June 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  27. ^ "Red Meat (Beef, Pork, Lamb): Increases Risk of Colorectal Cancer". American Institute for Cancer Research. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  28. ^ "Limit red and processed meat". WCRF International. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  29. ^ "Processed meat and cancer – what you need to know". Cancer Research UK - Science blog. 26 October 2015. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
  30. ^ Santarelli RL, Pierre F, Corpet DE (2008). "Processed meat and colorectal cancer: a review of epidemiologic and experimental evidence". Nutrition and Cancer. 60 (2): 131–44. doi:10.1080/01635580701684872. PMC 2661797. PMID 18444144.
  31. ^ a b Jeyakumar A, Dissabandara L, Gopalan V (April 2017). "A critical overview on the biological and molecular features of red and processed meat in colorectal carcinogenesis". Journal of Gastroenterology. 52 (4): 407–418. doi:10.1007/s00535-016-1294-x. PMID 27913919. S2CID 20865644.
  32. ^ "Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk". National Cancer Institute. 2018. Archived from the original on 6 November 2011.
  33. ^ Zhang X, Liang S, Chen X, Yang J, Zhou Y, Du L, Li K (December 2022). "Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review". Br J Nutr: 1–30. doi:10.1017/S0007114522003415. PMID 36545687.
  34. ^ Kim K, Hyeon J, Lee SA, Kwon SO, Lee H, Keum N, et al. (August 2017). "Role of Total, Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption in Stroke Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies". Journal of the American Heart Association. 6 (9): e005983. doi:10.1161/jaha.117.005983. PMC 5634267. PMID 28855166.
  35. ^ Zhang, Xingxia; Liang, Shiqi; Chen, Xinrong; Yang, Jie; Zhou, Yong; Du, Liang; Li, Ka (n.d.). "Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review". British Journal of Nutrition: 1–30. doi:10.1017/S0007114522003415. ISSN 0007-1145. PMID 36545687.
  36. ^ Sanders, Lisa M.; Wilcox, Meredith L.; Maki, Kevin C. (5 May 2022). "Red meat consumption and risk factors for type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 77 (2): 156–165. doi:10.1038/s41430-022-01150-1. PMC 9908545. PMID 35513448. S2CID 248520414.
  37. ^ O'Connor, Lauren E; Kim, Jung Eun; Clark, Caroline M; Zhu, Wenbin; Campbell, Wayne W (1 February 2021). "Effects of Total Red Meat Intake on Glycemic Control and Inflammatory Biomarkers: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". Advances in Nutrition. 12 (1): 115–127. doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa096. PMC 7850054. PMID 32910818.
  38. ^ Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G, Lampousi AM, Knüppel S, Iqbal K, Schwedhelm C, et al. (May 2017). "Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". European Journal of Epidemiology. 32 (5): 363–375. doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y. PMC 5506108. PMID 28397016.
  39. ^ Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB (October 2011). "Red meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 94 (4): 1088–96. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.018978. PMC 3173026. PMID 21831992.
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