Mande languages

Mande
West Sudanic
Ethnicity	Mandé peoples
Geographic distribution	West Africa
Linguistic classification	Niger–Congo? Mande
Subdivisions	Manding–Kpelle (Central & Southwest) Samogo–Soninke (Northwest) Dan–Busa (East)
ISO 639-5	dmn
Glottolog	mand1469

The Mande languages are spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mandé people and include Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Dioula, Bozo, Mende, Susu, and Vai. There are millions of speakers, chiefly in Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast. The Mande languages have traditionally been considered a divergent branch of the Niger–Congo family, though this classification has always been controversial.

The group was first recognized in 1854 by S. W. Koelle in his Polyglotta Africana. He mentioned 13 languages under the heading North-Western High-Sudan Family, or Mandéga Family of Languages. In 1901 Maurice Delafosse made a distinction of two groups in his Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue. He speaks of a northern group mandé-tan and a southern group mandé-fu. This distinction was basically done only because the languages in the north use the expression tan for ten whereas the southern group use fu. In 1924 L. Tauxier noted that this distinction is not well founded and there is at least a third subgroup he called mandé-bu. It is not until 1950 when A. Prost supports this view and gives further details. In 1958 Welmers published an article The Mande Languages where he divided the languages into three subgroups – North-West, South and East. His conclusion was based on lexicostatistic research. Greenberg followed this distinction in his The Languages of Africa (1963). Long (1971) and G. Galtier (1980) follow the distinction into three groups but with notable differences.

History

There is a diversity of opinion concerning the age of the Mande languages, but Greenberg has suggested that around 7000 years BP(before the present) the Niger-Congo group, which includes the Mande languages, began to break up. They were practising a neolithic culture as indicated by the Proto Niger-Congo words for "cow, goat and cultivate."

Classification

Mande does not share the morphology characteristic of most of the Niger–Congo family, such as the noun-class system. Blench regards it as an early branch that—like Ijoid and perhaps Dogon—diverged before this developed. Dwyer (1998) compared it with other branches of Niger–Congo and finds that they form a coherent family, with Mande being the most divergent of the branches he considered. However, Dimmendaal (2008) argues that the evidence for inclusion is slim, with no new evidence for decades, and that for now Mande is best considered an independent family.

Most internal Mande classifications are based on lexicostatistics, and the results are unreliable. See for example, Vydrin (2009), based on a 100-word list. The following classification from Kastenholz (1996) is based on lexical innovations and comparative linguistics; details of East Mande are from Dwyer (1989, 1996) [summarized in Williamson & Blench 2000].

Mande

East Mande   (Dan–Busa)  South(east)  Mande  Mano–Dan  Mano  Guro–Dan  Dan–Goo–Tura Guro–Yaure  Nwa–Beng  Mwa–Wan Gban–Beng  Bisa–Busa   Samo–Busa  Samo Busa  languages  Busa–Boko Shanga–Tyenga Bissa West Mande  Central West  (Manding–Kpelle) Central Mande  Manding–Jɔgɔ  Jɔgɔ–Jeri Jeri Jɔgɔ languages (Ligbi)  Manding–Vai  Vai–Kɔnɔ  Manding–Mokole  Manding languages Mokole languages Susu–Yalunka  Southwest  Mande  Mende–Loma  Looma  Mende–Bandi  Bandi–Zialo Mɛnde–Loko Kpɛllɛ Northwest (Samogo–Soninke)   Northwest  proper  Soninke–Bobo  Bɔbɔ  Soninke–Bozo  Soninke Bozo Samogo languages (partial: Duun–Sembla) Jɔ (Jowulu)

Paperno describes Beng and extinct Gbin as two primary branches of Southern Mande.

Characteristics

Mande languages do not have the noun-class system or verbal extensions of the Atlantic–Congo languages and for which the Bantu languages are so famous, though Bɔbɔ has causative and intransitive forms of the verb. Southwestern Mande languages and Soninke have initial consonant mutation. Plurality is most often marked with a clitic; in some languages, with tone, as for example in Sembla. Pronouns often have alienable–inalienable and inclusive–exclusive distinctions. Word order in transitive clauses is subject–auxiliary–object–verb–adverb. Mainly postpositions are used. Within noun phrases, possessives come before the noun, adjectives and plural markers after, while demonstratives are found with both orders. (Williamson & Blench 2000).

Cognates

Some cognates from D. J. Dwyer:

GLOSS	PROTO- MANDÉ	manding	Kono-Vai	Susu	Mandé SW.	Soninké	Sembla	Bobo	San	Busa	Mano	Dan	Guro	Mwa
'mouth'	*da	da	da	dɛ	la	laqqe	jo	do	le	le	le	Di	le	le, di
'saliva'	*da-yi	da-ji	da-	sɛ-ye	la-yi	laxan-ji	jon-fago	dibe	se	le-i	le-yi	Di-li	leri	liri
'water'	*yi	je	yi	yi	ya	zu	jo	ji, zio	mun	i	yi	yi	yi	yi
'breast'	*n-koŋ	sin	susu	sisi	ŋeni	konbe	kye	ɲiŋi	ɲo	ɲo	ɲoŋ	ɲoŋ	ɲoŋ	ɲoŋ
'milk'	*n-kon-yi	nɔnɔ	susu-ji	xin-yɛ	gen-iya	-xatti	kye-n-dyo	n-yan-niŋi		n-yo-			n-yoŋ-yi	n-yoŋ-yi
'goat'	*bo(re)	ba	ba		ɓoli	sugo	bi	gwa	bwe	ble	bɔ	bɔ	bori	bɔ
'buck'	*bore-guren	ba-koro						gu-gura		ble-sa	bɔ-gon	bɔ-gon	gyagya	bɔ-guren
'sheep'	*saga	saga	bara-wa	yexe	ɓara	jaxe	sega	sɛge	sere	sa	baa	bla	bera	bla
'ram'	*saga-guren	saga-koro				segaba	kekyere	si-gula	da-gu		bla-gon	bra-gon	bla-gure

Note that in these cognates: 'saliva' = 'mouth'+'water', 'milk' = 'breast'+'water', 'buck (he-goat)' = 'goat'+'male', 'ram' = 'sheep'+'male'.

See also

• Manding languages
• Mandé
• Mende language

References

General references

• Delafosse, Maurice (1901) Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue. Paris : Leroux. 304 p.
• Delafosse, Maurice (1904) Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de soixante langues ou dialectes parlés à la Ivory Coast et dans les régions limitrophes, avec des notes linguistiques et ethnologiques. Paris : Leroux. 285 p.
• Halaoui, Nazam, Kalilou Tera, Monique Trabi (1983) Atlas des langues mandé – sud de Ivory Coast. Abidjan : ACCT-ILA.
• Kastenholz, Raimund (1996) Sprachgeschichte im West-Mande: Methoden und Rekonstruktionen. Mande Languages and Linguistics · Langues et Linguistique Mandé, 2. Köln : Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. 281 p.
• Steinthal, Heymann (1867) Die Mande-Negersprachen, psychologisch und phonetisch betrachtet. Berlin: Schade. 344 p.
• Sullivan, Terrence D. 2004 [1983]. A preliminary report of existing information on the Manding languages of West Africa: Summary and suggestions for future research. SIL Electronic Survey Report. Dallas, SIL International.
• Vydrine, Valentin, T.G. Bergman and Matthew Benjamin (2000) Mandé language family of West Africa: Location and genetic classification. SIL Electronic Survey Report. Dallas, SIL International.
• Vydrin, Valentin. On the problem of the Proto-Mande homeland // Вопросы языкового родства – Journal of Language Relationship 1, 2009, pp. 107–142.
• Welmers, William E.(1971) Niger–Congo, Mande. In Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa (Current Trends in Linguistics,7), Thomas A. Sebeok, Jade Berry, Joseph H. Greenberg et al. (eds.), 113–140. The Hague: Mouton.
• Williamson, Kay, and Roger Blench (2000) "Niger–Congo". In Heine & Nurse, eds., African Languages.

External links

• http://mandelang.kunstkamera.ru/index/langues_mande/
• Mande page of the Journal of West African Languages.
• Mande languages page in the MultiTree Project at the LINGUIST List.