Washo language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Washo, Washoe | ||
|---|---|---|
| Wasuu | ||
| Spoken in | United States | |
| Region | Nevada (Washoe County) | |
| Total speakers | USA: 252 (2000)[1] | |
| Language family | Hokan
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| Language codes | ||
| ISO 639-1 | None | |
| ISO 639-2 | was | |
| ISO 639-3 | was | |
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| Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. | ||
The Washo language (also Washoe) is an endangered Native American language isolate spoken by the Washo on the California–Nevada border in the drainages of the Truckee and Carson Rivers, especially around Lake Tahoe. While there are very few speakers of Washo today (only 10 according to some; 252 according to the 2000 US Census[1]), there are Washo-language programs aimed at increasing the number of proficient speakers. The speakers of Washo at the end of the twentieth century included 64 individuals between the ages of 5 and 17, 4 of whom have limited English proficiency.[1]
Ethnographic Washo speakers belonged to the Great Basin culture area and they were the only non-Numic group of that area.[2] The language has borrowed from the neighboring Uto-Aztecan, Maiduan and Miwokan languages and is connected to both the Great Basin and California sprachbunds.
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[edit] Regional variation
Washo shows very little geographic variation. Jacobsen (1986:108) wrote, "When there are two variants of a feature, generally one is found in a more northerly area and the other in a more southerly one, but the lines separating the two areas for the different features do not always coincide."
[edit] Genetic relations
Washo is not in the same language family as any of its three direct neighboring languages (Northern Paiute is a Numic language (Uto-Aztecan), Maidu is Maiduan, and Miwok is Utian), and no strong relation with any other language has been found. Washo is often placed in the theoretical Hokan stock.[3] Others have considered that if Washo is a member of this family, it is only a distant relationship. The first connection of Washo with Hokan appeared when J. P. Harrington suggested a connection between Washo and the Chumashan family (which was already placed under Hokan). Following Harrington, subsequent statements of Hokan (especially "core Hokan") have included Washo. However, even one of the originators of the Hokan hypothesis (Alfred L. Kroeber) finds that the relationship between Washo and Hokan "cannot be close". A 1988 reappraisal of Hokan by Terrence Kaufman considers Washo a probable Hokan member (although he considers Chumashan to be doubtful).[4] Because of the lack of a strong connection and doubts about the validity of a Hokan family itself, Mithun (1999) considered Washo to be a language isolate.
[edit] Sounds
Washo has regressive vowel harmony (or umlaut). The mechanics of vowel harmony differ between the northern and southern varieties.
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[edit] Grammar
Washo also uses reduplication of verbs iconically to indicate repetitive aspect or plural number.
Word order is SOV.
Washo uses both prefixation and suffixation on nouns and verbs. Verbal inflection is rich with a large number of tenses.
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This section requires expansion. |
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- University of Chicago Washo Revitalization Project
- The Rosetta Project
- Speaking the Language of the Land
- Reno Linguist Foremost Expert on Washoe Language
- Ethnologue: Washo
- Washo language overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
[edit] Notes
[edit] Bibliography
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- d'Azevedo, Warren L. (1986). "Washoe" in Great Basin, Warren L. d'Azevedo, ed. pp. 466-498. Volume 11 in Handbook of North American Indians, William C. Sturtevant, general editor. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-004578-9/0160045754.
- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Jacobsen, William H. (1986). "Washoe Language" in Great Basin, Warren L. d'Azevedo, ed. pp. 107-112. Volume 11 in Handbook of North American Indians, William C. Sturtevant, general editor. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-004578-9/0160045754.
- Jacobsen, William H. 1996. Beginning Washo. Occasional Papers 5: Nevada State Museum.
- *Kaufman, Terrence. 1988. "A Research Program for Reconstructing Proto-Hokan: First Gropings." In Scott DeLancey, ed. Papers from the 1988 Hokan-Penutian Languages Workshop, pp. 50-168. Eugene, Oregon: Department of Linguistics, University of Oregon. (University of Oregon Papers in Linguistics. Publications of the Center for Amerindian Linguistics and Ethnography 1.)
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
