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{{Indian Martial Arts}}
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The [[Indian subcontinent|'''Indian''' subcontinent]] is home to a variety of '''[[martial arts]]''', including [[Kalarippayattu]], [[Pehlwani]], [[Vajra Mushti]], [[Gatka]], and [[Dravidian martial arts]].
[[Image:Balarama9.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Martial arts have been associated with [[avatars]], such as [[Balarama]], in ancient [[Hindu mythology|Hindu mythological]] texts]]
[[Image:Balarama9.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Martial arts have been associated with [[avatars]], such as [[Balarama]], in ancient [[Hindu mythology|Hindu mythological]] texts]]
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The [[Indian subcontinent|'''Indian''' subcontinent]] is home to a variety of '''[[martial arts]]''', including [[Kalarippayattu]], [[Pehlwani]], [[Vajra Mushti]], [[Gatka]], and [[Dravidian martial arts]].
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
[[History of India|Ancient India]] was one of the centres of various martial traditions and practices. Most of the centers were in the Southern region, including present-day [[Kerala]] and the ancient Kingdom of [[Tamilakam]]. Some of the older traditions include organised martial systems as practiced by the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste of [[Hinduism]], these systems include armed and unarmed combat and aspects such as meditation, conditioning etc. Many ancient [[Hindu temple]]s have statues of [[deities]] and warriors in various postures related to combat.
[[History of India|Ancient India]] was one of the centres of various martial traditions and practices. Most of the centers were in the Southern region, including present-day [[Kerala]] and the ancient Kingdom of [[Tamilakam]]. Some of the older traditions include organised martial systems as practiced by the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste of [[Hinduism]], these systems include armed and unarmed combat and aspects such as meditation, conditioning etc. Many ancient [[Hindu temple]]s have statues of [[deities]] and warriors in various postures related to combat.
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==History==
==History==

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{{Indian Martial Arts}}

===Vedic martial arts===
===Vedic martial arts===
The origins of Indian martial arts can be traced back to the martial science of Dhanur Veda, mentioned in various ancient [[Indian literature]], including [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature dating back to the [[2nd millenium BC]], such as the ''[[Rigveda|Rig Veda]]'' (6.75.2), ''[[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]]'' and ''[[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]]'', and [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] literature such as the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana]]''. Dhanur Veda encompassed all the traditional fighting arts, but particularly the science of [[archery]]. The ancient ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.<ref name=Zarrilli1>Zarrilli, Phillip B. [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/power.html A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms.] [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]].</ref> Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other ancient texts such as the ''Vishnu Purana'' and the ''Siva Dhanur Veda'' of the [[Gupta Empire]], the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (c. 8th century),<ref name=Zarrilli1992>{{cite journal | author = Zarrilli, Phillip B. | year = 1992 | title = [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions] Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu | journal = Journal of Asian Martial Arts | volume = 1 | issue = 1 }}</ref> which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier [[sutra]]s on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.<ref>P. C. Chakravarti (1972). ''The art of warfare in ancient India''. Delhi.</ref> It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> The former included the [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow]], the [[sword]], [[spear]], [[noose]], [[armour]], [[Dart (missile)|iron dart]], [[Club (weapon)|club]], [[battle axe]], [[discus]], and the [[trident]].<ref name=Zarrilli1/> The latter included [[wrestling]], [[Knee (strike)|knee strikes]], and [[Punch (strike)|punching]] and [[kicking]] methods.<ref name=Svinth/>
The origins of Indian martial arts can be traced back to the martial science of Dhanur Veda, mentioned in various ancient [[Indian literature]], including [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature dating back to the [[2nd millenium BC]], such as the ''[[Rigveda|Rig Veda]]'' (6.75.2), ''[[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]]'' and ''[[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]]'', and [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] literature such as the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana]]''. Dhanur Veda encompassed all the traditional fighting arts, but particularly the science of [[archery]]. The ancient ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.<ref name=Zarrilli1>Zarrilli, Phillip B. [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/power.html A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms.] [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]].</ref> Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other ancient texts such as the ''Vishnu Purana'' and the ''Siva Dhanur Veda'' of the [[Gupta Empire]], the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (c. 8th century),<ref name=Zarrilli1992>{{cite journal | author = Zarrilli, Phillip B. | year = 1992 | title = [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions] Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu | journal = Journal of Asian Martial Arts | volume = 1 | issue = 1 }}</ref> which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier [[sutra]]s on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.<ref>P. C. Chakravarti (1972). ''The art of warfare in ancient India''. Delhi.</ref> It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> The former included the [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow]], the [[sword]], [[spear]], [[noose]], [[armour]], [[Dart (missile)|iron dart]], [[Club (weapon)|club]], [[battle axe]], [[discus]], and the [[trident]].<ref name=Zarrilli1/> The latter included [[wrestling]], [[Knee (strike)|knee strikes]], and [[Punch (strike)|punching]] and [[kicking]] methods.<ref name=Svinth/>
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The ''Mahabharata'' describes a prolonged battle between [[Arjuna]] and [[Karna]] using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.<ref name=Zarrilli1/> Stories describing [[Krishna]] from around the 6th century BC report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used [[knee strike]]s to the chest, [[punch]]es to the head, hair pulling, and [[Chokehold|strangleholds]].<ref name=Svinth/> Records from around 500 BC describe martial arts which include combat techniques in which a fighter seizes or reverses holds on an opponent's joints, strikes with his fists, or grapples and throws his adversary. These three activities developed in conjunction with, as well as independantly of, each other.<ref name=Borkowski>Cezar Borkowski (1998). ''Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts''. Alpha Books. ISBN 0-02-862947-7.</ref> [[Press up#Hindu press up|Hindu press up]]s used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.<ref name=Svinth/>
The ''Mahabharata'' describes a prolonged battle between [[Arjuna]] and [[Karna]] using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.<ref name=Zarrilli1/> Stories describing [[Krishna]] from around the 6th century BC report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used [[knee strike]]s to the chest, [[punch]]es to the head, hair pulling, and [[Chokehold|strangleholds]].<ref name=Svinth/> Records from around 500 BC describe martial arts which include combat techniques in which a fighter seizes or reverses holds on an opponent's joints, strikes with his fists, or grapples and throws his adversary. These three activities developed in conjunction with, as well as independantly of, each other.<ref name=Borkowski>Cezar Borkowski (1998). ''Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts''. Alpha Books. ISBN 0-02-862947-7.</ref> [[Press up#Hindu press up|Hindu press up]]s used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.<ref name=Svinth/>


References to martial arts are found in early [[Buddhist texts]]. In the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' (Chapter 14), [[Gautama Buddha]] (563-483 BC) refers to a [[boxing]] art while speaking to [[Manjusri]].<ref name=Haines>Bruce A. Haines (1995). ''Karate's History and Traditions'' (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-1947-5.</ref> The ''Lotus Sutra'' also categorized combat techniques as [[Grappling hold|joint locks]], [[Punch (strike)|fist strikes]], [[Grappling|grapples]], and [[Throw (grappling)|throws]],<ref>[http://www.uta.edu/student_orgs/umaa/htmlDocs/history.html History of Taekwondo.] University Martial Arts Association.</ref> and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called ''Nara''.<ref>Tim Steinwachs. [http://home.maine.rr.com/poiuyt/history.html History of Karate.]</ref> Another early Buddhist [[sutra]] ''Hongyo-kyo'' describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince [[Nanda (Buddhism)|Nanda]] and his cousin [[Devadatta]].<ref name=Haines/> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion of martial arts and archer before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/>
References to martial arts are found in early [[Buddhist texts]]. In the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' (Chapter 14), [[Gautama Buddha]] (563-483 BC) refers to a [[boxing]] art while speaking to [[Manjusri]].<ref name=Haines>Bruce A. Haines (1995). ''Karate's History and Traditions'' (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-1947-5.</ref> The ''Lotus Sutra'' also categorized combat techniques as [[Grappling hold|joint locks]], [[Punch (strike)|fist strikes]], [[Grappling|grapples]], and [[Throw (grappling)|throws]],<ref>[http://www.uta.edu/student_orgs/umaa/htmlDocs/history.html History of Taekwondo.] University Martial Arts Association.</ref> and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called ''Nara''.<ref>Tim Steinwachs. [http://home.maine.rr.com/poiuyt/history.html History of Karate.]</ref> Another early Buddhist [[sutra]] ''Hongyo-kyo'' describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince [[Nanda (Buddhism)|Nanda]] and his cousin [[Devadatta]].<ref name=Haines/> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion of martial arts and archery before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/>


Around the 3rd century BC, [[Patanjali]] wrote the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various [[mudra]] finger movements were taught in [[Yogacara]] Buddhism. These [[Yoga]] elements, as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.<ref name=Svinth/>
Around the 3rd century BC, [[Patanjali]] wrote the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various [[mudra]] finger movements were taught in [[Yogacara]] Buddhism. These [[Yoga]] elements, as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.<ref name=Svinth/>
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Around 630, King [[Narasimhavarman]] of the [[Pallava dynasty]] commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of [[Varma Kalai|Varma Adi]], a Dravidian martial art that allowed [[kick]]ing, kneeing, [[elbow strike|elbowing]], and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the ''Agni Purana''.<ref name=Svinth/>
Around 630, King [[Narasimhavarman]] of the [[Pallava dynasty]] commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of [[Varma Kalai|Varma Adi]], a Dravidian martial art that allowed [[kick]]ing, kneeing, [[elbow strike|elbowing]], and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the ''Agni Purana''.<ref name=Svinth/>


Martial arts were not exclusive to the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste but they were the ones to have had the greatest success with the arts. The 8th century text ''Kuvalaymala'' by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at ''salad'' and ''ghatika'' educational institutions, where [[Brahmin]] students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from [[South India]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Bengal]]) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."<ref name=Zarrilli1/>
Martial arts were not exclusive to the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste, though they used the arts more extensively. The 8th century text ''Kuvalaymala'' by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at ''salad'' and ''ghatika'' educational institutions, where [[Brahmin]] students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from [[South India]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Bengal]]) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."<ref name=Zarrilli1/>


The modern forms of [[Marma Adi]], [[Varma Kalai|Varma Ati]],<ref name=Svinth/> and [[Kalarippayattu]] were developed by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] dynasties.<ref name=Zarrilli1998>{{cite book | last = Zarrilli | first = Phillip B. | title = When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art | year = 1998 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford}}</ref>
The modern forms of [[Marma Adi]], [[Varma Kalai|Varma Ati]],<ref name=Svinth/> and [[Kalarippayattu]] were developed by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] dynasties.<ref name=Zarrilli1998>{{cite book | last = Zarrilli | first = Phillip B. | title = When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art | year = 1998 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford}}</ref>

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[[Image:Sikhs_with_chakrams.jpg|thumb|right|Illustration of [[Sikh]]s armed with both [[musket]]s and [[chakram]]s, inscribed "Nihang Abchal Nagar" (Nihangs from Hazur Sahib), 1844]]
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[[Image:Grate gama.tif.jpg|thumb|right|[[Catch wrestling|Catch wrestlers]] the [[Great Gama]] and [[Imam Baksh Pahalwan]]]]


===Indian martial arts under colonialism===
===Indian martial arts under colonialism===
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[[Image:Sikhs_with_chakrams.jpg|thumb|right|Illustration of [[Sikh]]s armed with both [[musket]]s and [[chakram]]s, inscribed "Nihang Abchal Nagar" (Nihangs from Hazur Sahib), 1844]]
Indian martial arts declined as Western colonialism disrupted the livelihoods of India's martial castes.
Indian martial arts declined as Western colonialism disrupted the livelihoods of India's martial castes.


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{{see|Foreign influence on Chinese martial arts}}
{{see|Foreign influence on Chinese martial arts}}
{{see also|Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection}}
{{see also|Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection}}
The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the [[Indosphere]], those regions outside India influenced by [[Culture of India|Indian culture]]. Examples of such arts include [[Bando]],<ref>Women in martial arts by Carol A. Wiley</ref> [[Silat]],<ref>The Malay Art Of Self-defense: Silat Seni Gayong by Sheikh Shamsuddin</ref><ref>Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia by Donn F. Draeger</ref> [[Escrima]],<ref>Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima by Mark V. Wiley</ref> [[Muay Thai]],<ref>B. J. Erwin de Castro, R. Rhodes (1993). [http://www.equip.org/free/DM066.pdf Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the Martial Arts Phenomenon], ''Christian Research Journal'' '''5'''.</ref><ref>[http://www.usmta.com/MYTHS%20&%20LEGENDS.htm The Ramakien.] United States Muay Thai Association.</ref> and [[Shorinji Kempo]].<ref>Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Aesthetics Form in Japan By Rupert A. Cox, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (page 157)</ref><ref>[http://72.14.235.104/search?q=cache:XdFxlKD9j2kJ:nuclear.gla.ac.uk/~richard/files/shorinji/HistoryOfShorinjiKempo.pdf+Doshin+so+Indian+deva&hl=en&gl=in&ct=clnk&cd=4 History of Shorinji Kempo compiled by R. Codling]</ref><ref>[http://www.uwesu.net/shorinji/hist.shtml UWE Shorinji Kempo club] Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).</ref><ref>[http://www.dragon-tsunami.org/Dtimes/Pages/article25.htm Shorinji Kempo by Richard Killion - Dragon Times #14] The symbol of Shorinji Kempo is an commonly seen Buddhist symbol of Indian origin, and great antiquity. In Japan it is used to denote a Buddhist temple, on maps and the symbol itself is displayed in and around the temples. The religious device is composed of four Ls at right angles to each other similar to, but not to be confused with the swastika used in Nazi Germany which is its mirror image. Another form of the Manji in Shorinji Kempo is two flowing lines within a circle, somewhat similar to a double yin-yang symbol. This modified symbol commonly used in Shorinji Kempo dojos in the West.</ref>
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[[Image:Grate gama.tif.jpg|thumb|right|[[Catch wrestling|Catch wrestlers]] the [[Great Gama]] and [[Imam Baksh Pahalwan]]]]
The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the [[Indosphere]], those regions outside India influenced by [[Culture of India|Indian culture]]. Examples of such arts include [[Bando]],<ref>Women in martial arts by Carol A. Wiley</ref> [[Silat]],<ref>The Malay Art Of Self-defense: Silat Seni Gayong by Sheikh Shamsuddin</ref><ref>Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia by Donn F. Draeger</ref> [[Escrima]],<ref>Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima by Mark V. Wiley</ref> and [[Muay Thai]].<ref>B. J. Erwin de Castro, R. Rhodes (1993). [http://www.equip.org/free/DM066.pdf Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the Martial Arts Phenomenon], ''Christian Research Journal'' '''5'''.</ref><ref>[http://www.usmta.com/MYTHS%20&%20LEGENDS.htm The Ramakien.] United States Muay Thai Association.</ref>


The Indian wrestling form of [[Pehlwani]] has influenced both [[catch wrestling]] and it's derivative system of [[shoot wrestling]]. [[Karl Istaz]] travelled to India to train with Indian wrestlers and incorporated their training methods in shoot wrestling, wrestlers like [[Yoshiaki Fujiwara]]<ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/products/item1.cfm] </ref> have applied these methods to train shoot wrestlers around the world.<ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/91.cfm?sd=2] My Christmas with Karl Gotch by ''Jake Shannon''</ref><ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/180.cfm?sd=2] Victory Goes over a bridge</ref>
The Indian wrestling form of [[Pehlwani]] has influenced both [[catch wrestling]] and it's derivative system of [[shoot wrestling]]. [[Karl Istaz]] travelled to India to train with Indian wrestlers and incorporated their training methods in shoot wrestling. Wrestlers like [[Yoshiaki Fujiwara]]<ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/products/item1.cfm] </ref> have applied these methods to train shoot wrestlers around the world.<ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/91.cfm?sd=2] My Christmas with Karl Gotch by ''Jake Shannon''</ref><ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/180.cfm?sd=2] Victory Goes over a bridge</ref>


India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of [[Jogo do Pau]]. Tamil immigrants to [[Malaysia]] brought with them the staff fighting art [[Silambam]].<ref>[http://ejmas.com/jmanly/articles/2003/jmanlyart_wolfcosta_0203.htm] Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution</ref><ref>[http://home.dbio.uevora.pt/~oliveira/Jogo_Pau/J_Pau.htm] Jogo Do Pau</ref>
India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of [[Jogo do Pau]]. Tamil immigrants to [[Malaysia]] brought with them the staff fighting art [[Silambam]].<ref>[http://ejmas.com/jmanly/articles/2003/jmanlyart_wolfcosta_0203.htm] Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution</ref><ref>[http://home.dbio.uevora.pt/~oliveira/Jogo_Pau/J_Pau.htm] Jogo Do Pau</ref>

Revision as of 12:26, 12 January 2007

File:Balarama9.jpg
Martial arts have been associated with avatars, such as Balarama, in ancient Hindu mythological texts

The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of martial arts, including Kalarippayattu, Pehlwani, Vajra Mushti, Gatka, and Dravidian martial arts.

Introduction

Ancient India was one of the centres of various martial traditions and practices. Most of the centers were in the Southern region, including present-day Kerala and the ancient Kingdom of Tamilakam. Some of the older traditions include organised martial systems as practiced by the Kshatriya warrior caste of Hinduism, these systems include armed and unarmed combat and aspects such as meditation, conditioning etc. Many ancient Hindu temples have statues of deities and warriors in various postures related to combat.

Martial arts of the Indian subcontinent are diverse in nature and have origins of different times from various different ethnic groups. A number of ancient and sophisticated Dravidian martial arts were developed in South India, including Kuttu Varisai (empty hand combat) and Varma Kalai (the art of vital points) in Tamil Nadu, and Kalari Payattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (attack and defend) in Kerala.

History

Vedic martial arts

The origins of Indian martial arts can be traced back to the martial science of Dhanur Veda, mentioned in various ancient Indian literature, including Vedic literature dating back to the 2nd millenium BC, such as the Rig Veda (6.75.2), Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, and epic literature such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Dhanur Veda encompassed all the traditional fighting arts, but particularly the science of archery. The ancient Vishnu Purana text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.[1] Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other ancient texts such as the Vishnu Purana and the Siva Dhanur Veda of the Gupta Empire, the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the Agni Purana (c. 8th century),[2] which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier sutras on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.[3] It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.[4] The former included the bow and arrow, the sword, spear, noose, armour, iron dart, club, battle axe, discus, and the trident.[1] The latter included wrestling, knee strikes, and punching and kicking methods.[4]

The earliest evidence of the concept of vital pressure points also dates back to the Rig Veda where Indra is recorded to have defeated Vritra by attacking his vital pressure points (marman) with his vajra.[5] References are also found in the Atharva Veda.[6] With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.[2] Sushruta (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his Sushruta Samhita.[7] Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.[4] Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma Kalai and Marma Adi.[4]

Classical Indian martial arts

Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of Malla-yuddha (more commonly known as Mallayuddha), a form of combat wrestling codified into four forms,[8] which is described in the ancient Indian epics as the fighting style of warriors such as Bhima. The art is supposed to have gained maximum prominence in ancient India at the time when the oral tradition of the Mahabharata epic was conceived. The Mahabharata was compiled in textual form around the 5th century BC, while the epic's setting has a historical precedent in Vedic India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power in the late 2nd and early 1st millennia BC. It is believed that Malla-yuddha was regarded as a prominent martial art in that era.

The Mahabharata describes a prolonged battle between Arjuna and Karna using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.[1] Stories describing Krishna from around the 6th century BC report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.[4] Records from around 500 BC describe martial arts which include combat techniques in which a fighter seizes or reverses holds on an opponent's joints, strikes with his fists, or grapples and throws his adversary. These three activities developed in conjunction with, as well as independantly of, each other.[9] Hindu press ups used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.[4]

References to martial arts are found in early Buddhist texts. In the Lotus Sutra (Chapter 14), Gautama Buddha (563-483 BC) refers to a boxing art while speaking to Manjusri.[10] The Lotus Sutra also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws,[11] and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara.[12] Another early Buddhist sutra Hongyo-kyo describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta.[10] Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion of martial arts and archery before becoming the Buddha.[4]

Around the 3rd century BC, Patanjali wrote the Yoga Sutras, which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These Yoga elements, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.[4]

Ancient Dravidian martial arts, and the word "kalari", are mentioned in Sangam literature from the 2nd century BC. The Akananuru and Purananuru describe the martial arts of ancient Tamilakkam, including forms of one-to-one combat, and the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam. The word "kalari" appears in the Puram (verses 225, 237, 245, 356) and Akam (verses 34, 231, 293) to describe to both a battlefield and combat arena. The word "kalari tatt" denoted a martial feat, while "kalari kozhai" meant a coward in war.[13]

Organised martial traditions were studied as part of the dharma by the warrior Kshatriya in Hinduism

The martial art of Vajra Mushti was described in the Buddharata Sutra, written down by the 5th century,[9] but based on earlier material used by the Kshatriya warrior caste.[10] Indian military accounts of the Gupta Empire (c. 240-480) identified over 130 different classes of weapons. The Kama Sutra written by Vātsyāyana at the time suggested that women should regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and bow and arrow." Around this time, Tantric philosophers developed important metaphysical concepts such as kundalini energy, chakras, and mantras.[4]

Medieval Indian martial arts

Around 630, King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of Varma Adi, a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing, and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the Agni Purana.[4]

Martial arts were not exclusive to the Kshatriya warrior caste, though they used the arts more extensively. The 8th century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at salad and ghatika educational institutions, where Brahmin students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from South India, Rajasthan and Bengal) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."[1]

The modern forms of Marma Adi, Varma Ati,[4] and Kalarippayattu were developed by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the Chera and Chola dynasties.[14]

Illustration of Sikhs armed with both muskets and chakrams, inscribed "Nihang Abchal Nagar" (Nihangs from Hazur Sahib), 1844
File:Grate gama.tif.jpg
Catch wrestlers the Great Gama and Imam Baksh Pahalwan

Indian martial arts under colonialism

Indian martial arts declined as Western colonialism disrupted the livelihoods of India's martial castes.

Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century.[2] More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.[14] The British Raj eventually banned Kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.[15]

The resurgence of public interest in Kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule.[14]

Influence of Indian martial arts

Further information: Foreign influence on Chinese martial arts
See also: Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection

The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the Indosphere, those regions outside India influenced by Indian culture. Examples of such arts include Bando,[16] Silat,[17][18] Escrima,[19] Muay Thai,[20][21] and Shorinji Kempo.[22][23][24][25]

The Indian wrestling form of Pehlwani has influenced both catch wrestling and it's derivative system of shoot wrestling. Karl Istaz travelled to India to train with Indian wrestlers and incorporated their training methods in shoot wrestling. Wrestlers like Yoshiaki Fujiwara[26] have applied these methods to train shoot wrestlers around the world.[27][28]

India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of Jogo do Pau. Tamil immigrants to Malaysia brought with them the staff fighting art Silambam.[29][30]

K. Voroshilov travelled to India, under the employ of NKVD physical training center, "Dinamo", to observe its native matial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries — including India — formed the basis of the Russian martial art Sambo.[31][32]

In addition, modern martial arts such as Brazilian Jiu Jitsu credit India as a founding influence on their fighting principles.[33][34][35][36][37][38]

References

  1. ^ a b c d Zarrilli, Phillip B. A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms. University of Wisconsin-Madison.
  2. ^ a b c Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1992). "To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu". Journal of Asian Martial Arts. 1 (1). {{cite journal}}: External link in |title= (help)
  3. ^ P. C. Chakravarti (1972). The art of warfare in ancient India. Delhi.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences.
  5. ^ Mariana Fedorova (1990). Die Marmantheorie in der klassischen indischen Medizin.
  6. ^ Subhash Ranade (1993). Natural Healing Through Ayurveda (p. 161). Passage Press. Utah USA.
  7. ^ G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita.
  8. ^ R. Venkatachalam. Mallayuddha
  9. ^ a b Cezar Borkowski (1998). Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts. Alpha Books. ISBN 0-02-862947-7.
  10. ^ a b c Bruce A. Haines (1995). Karate's History and Traditions (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-1947-5.
  11. ^ History of Taekwondo. University Martial Arts Association.
  12. ^ Tim Steinwachs. History of Karate.
  13. ^ Suresh, P. R. (2005). Kalari Payatte - The martial art of Kerala.
  14. ^ a b c Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1998). When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  15. ^ Luijendijk, D.H. (2005). Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art. Boulder: Paladin Press. ISBN 1-58160-480-7.
  16. ^ Women in martial arts by Carol A. Wiley
  17. ^ The Malay Art Of Self-defense: Silat Seni Gayong by Sheikh Shamsuddin
  18. ^ Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia by Donn F. Draeger
  19. ^ Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima by Mark V. Wiley
  20. ^ B. J. Erwin de Castro, R. Rhodes (1993). Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the Martial Arts Phenomenon, Christian Research Journal 5.
  21. ^ The Ramakien. United States Muay Thai Association.
  22. ^ Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Aesthetics Form in Japan By Rupert A. Cox, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (page 157)
  23. ^ History of Shorinji Kempo compiled by R. Codling
  24. ^ UWE Shorinji Kempo club Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).
  25. ^ Shorinji Kempo by Richard Killion - Dragon Times #14 The symbol of Shorinji Kempo is an commonly seen Buddhist symbol of Indian origin, and great antiquity. In Japan it is used to denote a Buddhist temple, on maps and the symbol itself is displayed in and around the temples. The religious device is composed of four Ls at right angles to each other similar to, but not to be confused with the swastika used in Nazi Germany which is its mirror image. Another form of the Manji in Shorinji Kempo is two flowing lines within a circle, somewhat similar to a double yin-yang symbol. This modified symbol commonly used in Shorinji Kempo dojos in the West.
  26. ^ [1]
  27. ^ [2] My Christmas with Karl Gotch by Jake Shannon
  28. ^ [3] Victory Goes over a bridge
  29. ^ [4] Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution
  30. ^ [5] Jogo Do Pau
  31. ^ [6] Sambo:Soviet System of Sport and Combat
  32. ^ [7] The History of Sombo
  33. ^ [8] History of Jiu-Jitsu
  34. ^ John Will. Vajramushti: The Ancient Vale Tudo of India.
  35. ^ [9] The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu at Gracie Barra
  36. ^ [10] The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation
  37. ^ [11] The beginning: Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
  38. ^ Historia do Jiu-Jitsu at Royler Gracie's official website

See also

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