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{{Indian Martial Arts}} |
{{Indian Martial Arts}} |
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The [[Indian subcontinent]] is home to a variety of '''[[martial arts]]''', including [[Pehlwani]], [[Gatka]], [[Vajra Mushti]] and [[Dravidian martial arts]]. |
The [[Indian subcontinent]] is home to a variety of '''[[martial arts]]''', including [[Pehlwani]], [[Gatka]], [[Vajra Mushti]] and [[Dravidian martial arts]]. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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===Early Indian martial arts=== |
===Early Indian martial arts=== |
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Early martial traditions find mention in [[Indian literature]], including [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature dating back to the [[2nd millennium BC]], such as the ''[[Rigveda|Rig Veda]]'' (6.75.2), ''[[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]]'' and ''[[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]]'', and [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] literature such as the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana]]''. The ancient ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.<ref name=Zarrilli1>Zarrilli, Phillip B. [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/power.html A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms.] [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]].</ref> Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other ancient texts such as the ''Vishnu Purana'' and the ''Siva Dhanur Veda'' of the [[Gupta Empire]], the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (c. 8th century),<ref name=Zarrilli1992>{{cite journal | author = Zarrilli, Phillip B. | year = 1992 | title = [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions] Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu | journal = Journal of Asian Martial Arts | volume = 1 | issue = 1 }}</ref> which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier [[sutra]]s on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.<ref>P. C. Chakravarti (1972). ''The art of warfare in ancient India''. Delhi.</ref> It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> The former included the [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow]], the [[sword]], [[spear]], [[noose]], [[armour]], [[Dart (missile)|iron dart]], [[Club (weapon)|club]], [[battle axe]], [[discus]], and the [[trident]].<ref name=Zarrilli1/> The latter included [[wrestling]], [[Knee (strike)|knee strikes]], and [[Punch (strike)|punching]] and [[kicking]] methods.<ref name=Svinth/> |
Early martial traditions find mention in [[Indian literature]], including [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature dating back to the [[2nd millennium BC]], such as the ''[[Rigveda|Rig Veda]]'' (6.75.2), ''[[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]]'' and ''[[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]]'', and [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] literature such as the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana]]''. The ancient ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.<ref name=Zarrilli1>Zarrilli, Phillip B. [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/power.html A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms.] [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]].</ref> Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other ancient texts such as the ''Vishnu Purana'' and the ''Siva Dhanur Veda'' of the [[Gupta Empire]], the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (c. 8th century),<ref name=Zarrilli1992>{{cite journal | author = Zarrilli, Phillip B. | year = 1992 | title = [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions] Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu | journal = Journal of Asian Martial Arts | volume = 1 | issue = 1 }}</ref> which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier [[sutra]]s on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.<ref>P. C. Chakravarti (1972). ''The art of warfare in ancient India''. Delhi.</ref> It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> The former included the [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow]], the [[sword]], [[spear]], [[noose]], [[armour]], [[Dart (missile)|iron dart]], [[Club (weapon)|club]], [[battle axe]], [[discus]], and the [[trident]].<ref name=Zarrilli1/> The latter included [[wrestling]], [[Knee (strike)|knee strikes]], and [[Punch (strike)|punching]] and [[kicking]] methods.<ref name=Svinth/> |
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Revision as of 08:49, 7 July 2007
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The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of martial arts, including Pehlwani, Gatka, Vajra Mushti and Dravidian martial arts.
Introduction
Ancient India developed a number of sophisticated martial arts. Martial arts of the Indian subcontinent are diverse in nature and have origins of different times from various different regions. Some of the older traditions include the organised martial systems practiced by the Kshatriya warrior caste of Hinduism. These systems include armed and unarmed combat, and aspects such as meditation and mental conditioning. Many ancient Hindu temples have statues of deities and warriors in various postures related to combat. A number of ancient Dravidian martial arts were developed in South India, including Kuttu Varisai (empty hand combat) and Varma Kalai (the art of vital points) in Tamil Nadu, and Kalarippayattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (attack and defend) in Kerala.
The theories behind Yoga, Ayurveda and Tantra, such as Kundalini (coiled energy), Prana (life force), Nadi (meridians), Chakra (aura) and Marmam (pressure points), are also present in Indian martial arts.
History
Early Indian martial arts
Early martial traditions find mention in Indian literature, including Vedic literature dating back to the 2nd millennium BC, such as the Rig Veda (6.75.2), Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, and epic literature such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana. The ancient Vishnu Purana text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.[1] Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other ancient texts such as the Vishnu Purana and the Siva Dhanur Veda of the Gupta Empire, the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the Agni Purana (c. 8th century),[2] which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier sutras on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.[3] It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.[4] The former included the bow and arrow, the sword, spear, noose, armour, iron dart, club, battle axe, discus, and the trident.[1] The latter included wrestling, knee strikes, and punching and kicking methods.[4]
The earliest evidence of the concept of vital pressure points also dates back to the Rig Veda where Indra is recorded to have defeated Vritra by attacking his vital pressure points (marman) with his vajra.[5] References are also found in the Atharva Veda.[6] With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.[2] Sushruta (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his Sushruta Samhita.[7] Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.[4] Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma Kalai and Marma Adi.[4]
Indian works of art, particularly in temple sculptures show warriors in positions related to the martial arts. [8]
Classical Indian martial arts
Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of Malla-yuddha (more commonly known as Mallayuddha), a form of combat wrestling codified into four forms,[9] which is described in the ancient Indian epics as the fighting style of warriors such as Bhima. The art is supposed to have gained maximum prominence in ancient India at the time when the oral tradition of the Mahabharata epic was conceived. The Mahabharata was compiled in textual form around the 5th century BC, while the epic's setting has a historical precedent in Vedic India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power in the late 2nd and early 1st millennia BC. It is believed that Malla-yuddha was regarded as a prominent martial art in that era.
The Mahabharata describes a prolonged battle between Arjuna and Karna using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.[1] Another unarmed battle in the Mahabharata describes two fighters boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts.[10] Other boxing fights are also described in Mahabharata and Ramayana.[11]
Stories describing Krishna report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.[4] Records from around 500 BC describe martial arts which include combat techniques in which a fighter seizes or reverses holds on an opponent's joints, strikes with his fists, or grapples and throws his adversary. These three activities developed in conjunction with, as well as independently of, each other.[12] Hindu press ups and Hindu squats used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.[4]
Around the 3rd century BC, Patanjali wrote the Yoga Sutras, which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These Yoga elements, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.[4]
Ancient Dravidian martial arts, and the word "kalari", are mentioned in Sangam literature from the 2nd century BC. The Akananuru and Purananuru describe the martial arts of ancient Tamilakkam, including forms of one-to-one combat, and the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam. The word "kalari" appears in the Puram [13] and Akam [14] to describe to both a battlefield and combat arena.
The references to "Silappadikkaram" in Sangam literature dating back to the 2nd century refer to the sale of Silamabam staves, swords, pearls and armor to foreign traders. The ancient trading centre at the city of Madurai was renowned globally and was frequented by Romans, Greeks and Egyptians among others who had regular sea trade with the ancient Tamil kings. The silambam staff was one of the martial art weapons, which was in great demand with the visitors.[15][16]
References to martial arts are found in early Buddhist texts. The Lotus Sutra (ca. 1st century AD) refers to a boxing art while speaking to Manjusri.[17] The Lotus Sutra also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws,[18] and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara.[19] Another early Buddhist sutra Hongyo-kyo describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta.[17] Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion of martial arts and archery before becoming the Buddha.[4]
Like other branches of Sanskrit literature, treatises on martial arts become more systematic in the course of the 1st millennium AD. The Sushruta Samhita (ca. 3rd century) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body.[20] Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.[4] Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma Kalai and Marma Adi.[4]
The Vishnu Purana text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.[1] Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other Sanskrit texts such as the Vishnu Purana and the Siva Dhanur Veda of the Gupta Empire, the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the Agni Purana (c. 8th century),[2] which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier sutras on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.[21] It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.[4] The former included the bow and arrow, the sword, spear, noose, armour, iron dart, club, battle axe, discus, and the trident.[1] The latter included wrestling, knee strikes, and punching and kicking methods.[4]
The martial art of Vajra Mushti was described in the Buddharata Sutra, written down by the 5th century,[12] but based on earlier material used by the Kshatriya warrior caste.[17] Indian military accounts of the Gupta Empire (c. 240-480) identified over 130 different classes of weapons. The Kama Sutra written by Vātsyāyana at the time suggested that women should regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and bow and arrow." Around this time, Tantric philosophers developed important metaphysical concepts such as kundalini energy, chakras, and mantras.[4]
Medieval Indian martial arts
Around 630, King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of Varma Adi, a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing, and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the Agni Purana.[4]
Martial arts were not exclusive to the Kshatriya warrior caste, though they used the arts more extensively. The 8th century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at salad and ghatika educational institutions, where Brahmin students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from South India, Rajasthan and Bengal) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."[1]
The modern forms of Marma Adi, Varma Ati,[4] and Kalarippayattu were developed by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the Chera and Chola dynasties.[22]
Indian martial arts during Western imperialism
Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of the British Raj.[2] More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.[22] The British Raj eventually banned Kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.[23]
The resurgence of public interest in Kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India.
During the period, Indian wrestling became prominent in western catch wrestling tournaments. [24][25][26][27][28]
Influence of Indian martial arts
The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the Indosphere, those regions outside India influenced by Indian culture. Examples of such arts include Bando,[29] Silat,[30][31] Escrima,[32] and Muay Thai.[33][34]
The Tamil kingdoms were instrumental in the spread of Silambam throughout Southeast Asia. During the 18th and the 19th centuries Silambam was much more prevalent in Southeast Asia than in India, where it was banned by the British government.[35]
India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of Jogo do Pau.[36][37]
The practice of Indian clubs swinging was first introduced to England by British soldiers who had studied the discipline while stationed in India during the 1800s. The Indian clubs were used by military cadets and appeared as a gymnastic event in the 1904 Olympics. Gymnasiums were built just to cater to club exercise groups. [38][39][40][41][42][43]
Russian officials travelled to India, under the employ of NKVD physical training center, "Dinamo", to observe its native matial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries — including India — formed the basis of the Russian martial art Sambo. V.A. Spiridinov was assigned to Mongolia, China and India to research the Mongol-Vedic martial arts.[44]
The Indian wrestling form of Pehlwani has influenced both catch wrestling and it's derivative system of shoot wrestling. Karl Istaz applied the training methods of Indian wrestlers to shoot wrestling; this philosophy was later passed on to several of his students.[45][46][47]
Doshin So mentions the Shaolin murals of Indian and Chinese monks sparring together for spiritual edification as his main inspiration for the creation of Shorinji Kempo.[48][49]
In addition, modern martial arts such as Brazilian Jiu Jitsu credit India as a founding influence on their fighting principles.[50][51][52][53][54][55]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d e f Zarrilli, Phillip B. A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms. University of Wisconsin-Madison.
- ^ a b c d Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1992). "To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu". Journal of Asian Martial Arts. 1 (1).
{{cite journal}}: External link in|title= - ^ P. C. Chakravarti (1972). The art of warfare in ancient India. Delhi.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences.
- ^ Mariana Fedorova (1990). Die Marmantheorie in der klassischen indischen Medizin.
- ^ Subhash Ranade (1993). Natural Healing Through Ayurveda (p. 161). Passage Press. Utah USA.
- ^ G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita.
- ^ Tae-Kwon Do: Secrets of Korean Karate By Sihak Henry Cho. p. no. 14. Published 1992. Tuttle Publishing. Sports & Recreation. ISBN 0804817049
- ^ R.Venkatachalam (September 1999). Mallayuddha.
- ^ Section XIII: Samayapalana Parva, Book 4: Virata Parva, Mahabharata.
- ^ Shamya Dasgupta (June-September 2004). "An Inheritance from the British: The Indian Boxing Story", Routledge 21 (3), p. 433-451.
- ^ a b Cezar Borkowski (1998). Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts. Alpha Books. ISBN 0-02-862947-7.
- ^ verses 225, 237, 245, 356
- ^ verses 34, 231, 293
- ^ Raj, J. David Manuel (1977). The Origin and the Historical Developlment of Silambam Fencing: An Ancient Sefl-Defence Sport of India. Oregon: College of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Univ. of Oregon. pp. pp. 44, 50, & 83.
{{cite book}}:|pages=has extra text (help) - ^ Sports Authority of India (1987). Indigenous Games and Martial Arts of India. New Delhi: Sports Authority of India. pp. pp. 91 & 94.
{{cite book}}:|pages=has extra text (help) - ^ a b c Bruce A. Haines (1995). Karate's History and Traditions (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-1947-5.
- ^ University Martial Arts Association. History of Taekwondo.
- ^ Steinwachs, Tim.History of Karate.
- ^ G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita.
- ^ P. C. Chakravarti (1972). The art of warfare in ancient India. Delhi.
- ^ a b Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1998). When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Luijendijk, D.H. (2005). Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art. Boulder: Paladin Press. ISBN 1-58160-480-7.
- ^ The Lion of the Punjab – Gama in England, 1910 By Graham Noble
- ^ The Lion of the Punjab – Part II: Stanislaus Zbyszko By Graham Noble
- ^ The Lion of the Punjab – Part III: London, 1910 By Graham Noble
- ^ The Lion of the Punjab – Part IV: Aftermath by Graham Noble
- ^ Subaltern Bodies and Nationalist Physiques: Gama the Great and the Heroics of Indian Wrestling by Joseph Alter, Department of Anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- ^ Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts pg 155. Kodansha International.
- ^ Draeger, Donn F. (1992). Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. pg 23. Tuttle Publishing
- ^ Shamsuddin, Sheikh (2005). The Malay Art of Self-Defense: Silat Seni Gayong pg 7. North Atlantic Books.
- ^ Mark V. Wiley (1994). Filipino Martial Arts: Serrada Escrima pg21. Tuttle Publishing
- ^ Erwin de Castro, B. J. Oropeza and Ron Rhodes (1993). Enter The Dragon? Wrestling With The Martial Arts Phenomenon
- ^ United States Muay Thai Association. The Ramakien..
- ^ Crego, Robert (2003). Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries pg 32. Greenwood Press
- ^ Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution (February 2003). Excerpted from O JOGO DO PAU, Origens e evolução by Nuno Curvello Russo. Originally published in Os Portugueses e o Mundo, Conferência Internacional, VI Volume, "Artes, Arqueologia e Etnografia." Translated by Tony Wolf and Gonçalo Costa
- ^ Jogo Do Pau
- ^ Exercises with Clubs, by Dio Lewis, M.D., 1862
- ^ Indian Club Exercise, by Sim D. Kehoe, 1866
- ^ Indian Club Exercises from Athletic Sports for Boys, by Dick and Fitzgerald, 1866
- ^ Dick's Indian-Club Exercises, 1887
- ^ Gymnastic Nomenclature for Apparatus and Indian Club Movements, 1949
- ^ The Clubbell: The Indian Club Reappears, 2003
- ^ Todd, Geoff (2006). Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century pg 150. ISBN 1411661966
- ^ Shannon, Jake. My Christmas with Karl Gotch. Lion's Share Ventures
- ^ Laren Grey Umphlett (2007). Victory goes over a bridge. Lion's Share Ventures.
- ^ Karter, Karon, Mezger, Guy (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Kickboxing pg 163. Alpha Books
- ^ Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Aesthetics Form in Japan By Rupert A. Cox, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (page 157)
- ^ UWE Shorinji Kempo club Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).
- ^ Origins of Jiu-Jitsu at Carlosmachado.net
- ^ Historia do Jiu-Jitsu at Royler Gracie's official website
- ^ History of Jiu-Jitsu :Rickson Gracie Official website
- ^ Official Gracie Miami Websites: History of BJJ
- ^ The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: Official International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation Website
- ^ The beginning: Official Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Website