Didgeridoo

For the Aphex Twin single of the same name, see Digeridoo (single).

A didgeridoo. This particular instrument is more ornate than most.

The didgeridoo (also known as a didjeridu or didge) is a wind instrument of the Indigenous Australians of northern Australia. It is sometimes described as a natural wooden trumpet or "drone pipe". Musicologists classify it as an aerophone.

A didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical in shape and can measure anywhere from 1 to 3 m (3.2 ft to 9.8 ft) in length with most instruments measuring around 1.2 metres (3.9 ft). Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower the pitch or key of the instrument. Keys from D to F♯ are the preferred pitch of traditional Aboriginal players.

There are no reliable sources stating the didgeridoo's exact age, though it is commonly claimed to be the world's oldest wind instrument. Archaeological studies of rock art in Northern Australia suggests that the Aboriginal people of the Kakadu region of the Northern Territory have been using the didgeridoo for about 1500 years, based on the dating of paintings on cave walls and shelters from this period. A clear rock painting in Ginga Wardelirrhmeng from the freshwater period (1500 years ago until the present) shows a didgeridoo player and two songmen. In some Aboriginal cultures, only men are permitted to play it, and women can only use clapsticks.

Name

"Didgeridoo" is considered to be an onomatopoetic word of Western invention.

It has also been suggested that it may be derived from the Irish words dúdaire or dúidire, meaning variously 'trumpeter; constant smoker, puffer; long-necked person, eavesdropper; hummer, crooner' and dubh, meaning "black" (or duth, meaning "native"). However, this theory is not widely accepted.

The earliest occurrences of the word in print include a 1919 issue of Smith's Weekly where it was referred to as an "infernal didjerry" which "produced but one sound - didjerry, didjerry, didjerry and so on ad infinitum", the 1919 Australian National Dictionary, The Bulletin in 1924 and the writings of Herbert Basedow in 1926. There are numerous names for this instrument among the Aboriginal people of northern Australia, with yirdaki one of the better known words in modern Western society. Yirdaki, also sometimes spelt yidaki, refers to the specific type of instrument made and used by the Yolngu people of north-east Arnhem Land. Many believe that it is a matter of etiquette to reserve tribal names for tribal instruments, though retailers and businesses have been quick to exploit these special names for generic tourist-oriented instruments.

Regional names for the didgeridoo

There are at least 45 different synonyms for the didgeridoo. The following are some of the regional names.

Yolngu of Arnhem Land: yirdaki
Gupapuygu of Arnhem Land: Yiraka
Djinang of Arnhem Land: Yirtakki
Pintupi of Central Australia: paampu
Groote Eylandt: ngarrriralkpwina
Cobourg Peninsula: wuyimba or buyigi
Katherine: artawirr
Kakadu: garnbak
Lardil of Mornington Island: kurmurr or larrwa
Roebourne, WA: Kurmur
Kimberleys WA: ngaribi
Adelaide River: bambu
Alligator River: martba
Alice Springs: Ilpirra

Construction and play

A wax mouthpiece can soften during play, forming a better seal.

Authentic Aboriginal didgeridoos are produced in traditionally-oriented communities in Northern Australia and are usually made from hardwoods, especially the various eucalyptus species that are endemic to the region. Sometimes a native bamboo or pandanus is used. Generally the main trunk of the tree is harvested, though a substantial branch may be used instead. Aboriginal didgeridoo craftsmen spend considerable time in the challenging search for a tree that has been hollowed out--by termites--to just the right degree. If the hollow is too big or too small, it will make a poor quality instrument.

When a suitable tree is found and cut down, the segment of trunk or branch that will be made into a didgeridoo is cut out. The bark is taken off, the ends trimmed, and some shaping of the exterior then results in a finished instrument. This instrument may be painted or left undecorated. A rim of beeswax may be applied to the mouthpiece end. Traditional instruments made by Aboriginal craftsmen in Arnhem Land are sometimes fitted with a 'sugarbag' wax mouthpiece. This comes from wild bees and is black in appearance, with a distinctive aroma.

Didgeridoos are also made from PVC piping. These generally have a 3.81 centimetres (1.50 in) to 5.08 centimetres (2.00 in) inside diameter, and have a length corresponding to the desired key. The mouthpiece is often made of the traditional beeswax, or duct tape. An appropriately sized rubber stopper with a hole cut into it is equally acceptable. Some have also found that finely sanding and buffing the end of the pipe creates a sufficient mouthpiece.

The didgeridoo is played with continuously vibrating lips to produce the drone while using a special breathing technique called circular breathing. This requires breathing in through the nose whilst simultaneously expelling air out of the mouth using the tongue and cheeks. By use of this technique, a skilled player can replenish the air in their lungs, and with practice can sustain a note for as long as desired. Recordings exist of modern didgeridoo players playing continuously for more than 40 minutes, Mark Atkins on Didgeridoo Concerto (1994) plays for over 50 minutes continuously.

Fellow of the British Society Anthony Baines wrote that the didjeridoo functions "...as an aural kaleidoscope of timbres" and that "the extremely difficult virtuoso techniques developed by expert performers find no parallel elsewhere."

Physics and operation

A termite-bored didgeridoo has an irregular shape that, overall, usually increases in diameter towards the lower end. This shape means that its resonances occur at frequencies that are not harmonically spaced in frequency. This contrasts with the harmonic spacing of the resonances in a cylindrical plastic pipe, whose resonant frequencies fall in the ratio 1:3:5 etc. The second resonance of a didgeridoo (the note sounded by overblowing) is usually around an 11th higher than the fundamental frequency (a frequency ratio somewhat less than 3:1).

The vibration produced by the player's lips has harmonics, i.e., it has frequency components falling exactly in the ratio 1:2:3 etc. However, the non-harmonic spacing of the instrument's resonances means that the harmonics of the fundamental note are not systematically assisted by instrument resonances, as is usually the case for Western wind instruments (e.g., in a clarinet, the 1st 3rd and 5th harmonics of the reed are assisted by resonances of the bore, at least for notes in the low range).

Sufficiently strong resonances of the vocal tract can strongly influence the timbre of the instrument. At some frequencies, whose values depend on the position of the player's tongue, resonances of the vocal tract inhibit the oscillatory flow of air into the instrument. Bands of frequencies that are not thus inhibited produce formants in the output sound. These formants, and especially their variation during the inhalation and exhalation phases of circular breathing, give the instrument its readily recognisable sound.

Other variations in the didgeridoo's sound can be made with "screeches". Most of the "screeches" are related to sounds emitted by Australian animals, such as the dingo or the kookaburra. To produce these "screeches", the player simply has to cry out (in the didgeridoo of course) whilst continuing to blow air through it. The results range from very high-pitched sounds to much lower guttural vibrations.

Cultural significance

The didgeridoo is sometimes played as a solo instrument for recreational purposes, though more usually it accompanies dancing and singing in ceremonial rituals. For Aboriginal groups of northern Australia, the didgeridoo is an integral part of ceremonial life, as it accompanies singers and dancers in religious rituals. Pair sticks, sometimes called clapsticks or bilma, establish the beat for the songs during ceremonies. The rhythm of the didgeridoo and the beat of the clapsticks are precise, and these patterns have been handed down for many generations. Only men play the didgeridoo and sing during ceremonial occasions, whilst both men and women may dance. The taboo against women playing the instrument is not absolute; female Aboriginal didgeridoo players did exist, although their playing generally took place in an informal context and was not specifically encouraged. Linda Barwick, an ethnomusicologist, says that traditionally women have not played the didgeridoo in ceremony, but in informal situations there is no prohibition in the Dreaming Law. On September 3 2008, however, publisher Harper Collins was obliged to issue a puplic apology for its book "The Daring Book for Girls", scheduled to be published in October, which openly encouraged girls to play the instrument. Some sources state that the didgeridoo had other uses in ancient times.

In Australia a Dr. Mark Rose is bent on perpetuating a myth that girls or women should not play the didgeridoo. Humbug. I've been visiting remote regions of Australia for nearly 12 years, and the only time I encounter this myth is in the south and west of Australia. It's unjustified for anyone outside of Arnhem Land (the heart of didgeridoo country) to literally invent a taboo that does not come with the instrument from its place of origin.

Furthermore, Rose got himself so worked up while being interviewed by a reporter that he reversed the outcome of the more familiar hex. The old myth was simple: if an aboriginal woman touched or played a didgeridoo she'd become pregnant. Rose advises that women would become infertile. That's a new one! And not just aboriginal women, but all women everywhere that dare to defy the taboo.

Of course none of this is true, so where did the rumor start? The trace is easy; urban, mixed race people in Melbourne and Sydney (far from didgeridoo country) cultivated their own legend about an instrument that does not belong to them based entirely on misinformation. In fact, didgeridoo master and lawman David Blanasi (Beswick) told me in 1996 that the whole "woman have too many baby" story was a "joke" based on the didgeridoo's size and shape. Nobody in Arnhem Land ever took the neo-myth seriously, and they still don't to this day.

A woman once told that she shouldn't play the didjeridoo because it was the symbol of a penis. She quickly responded that she didn't realize it would be more acceptable for men to be playing phallic symbols with their mouths and that shut the perverted person up immediately. Another woman was hit the face by an aboriginal man in Western Australia for playing the didgeridoo in his presence. Yes, physical assault on a woman by a half-caste fella based on a lie that began as a joke.

The facts have been forged over many years of communication with didgeridoo lawmakers and embedded cultural authorities. There are myriad articles and statements by aboriginal men and women of high degree to the contrary (not to mention the millions of women that have touched and played didgeridoos for eons that have not become pregnant or infertile). I am disappointed that an educated adult man and a newspaper reporter consider such voodoo newsworthy in the 21st century.

That said, many legends begin with some hint at truth. Within traditional ceremony the didgeridoo is only played by men. The sound is used to accompany song and dance, and that's where the context of "men's business" regarding the instrument begins and ends. The myth in question was created and spread by (mostly) self-professed "cultural authorities" living in south eastern Australia, far from Arnhem Land where the instrument has its roots and, more importantly, its lawkeepers. What began as misinformation evolved into a "curse" which fed the Western ideals of noble savages and their magic.

Pushing all the contention aside, one only needs to visit Buku Larrngay Mulka, an aboriginal art center in the heart of didgeridoo country. Many of the finest didgeridoos (called yidaki up there) are decorated by Yolngu women. I've been to Arnhem Land and I've put the question of this taboo to aboriginal didgeridoo masters like David Blanasi and Djalu Gurruwiwi, both lawmen of high degree. According to these absolute authorities there is no law forbidding women to play the didgeridoo. The crafting, painting, and distribution of didgeridoos is a gift from the oldest living culture on the planet for everyone to enjoy, regardless of gender.

Modern innovations

A didgeridoo being played by Tristin Chanel of the ska band Five Star Affair in Calgary, Alberta, Canada in 2007

In the 20th century, several "modernized" versions of the didgeridoo have been developed. The didjeribone (also called "slideridoo" or "slidgeridoo"), a sliding didgeridoo made of plastic, was invented in the second half of the 20th century by Australian didgeridoo player Charlie McMahon. It is constructed of two lengths of plastic tube, one of which is slightly narrower in diameter than the other, and which slides inside the wider tube in the manner of a slide trombone (hence the instrument's name). This allows players to achieve fundamental tones within the compass of a major sixth, ranging from low B♭ to high G.

The didgeridoo has also found a place in modern Celtic music. It can be seen played side by side with a set of Great Highland Bagpipes, in groups such as The Wicked Tinkers and Brother.

A keyed didgeridoo (having keys somewhat like those of a saxophone, allowing the performer to play melodically) was developed in the late 20th century by the U.S. didgeridoo player Graham Wiggins (stage name Dr. Didg) and used on his CDs Out of the Woods] (1995) (in the track "Sun Tan") and Dust Devils (2002) (in the tracks "T'Boli" and "Sub-Aqua"). Wiggins built the unique and somewhat unwieldy instrument at the physics workshop of Oxford University, from which he earlier obtained his Ph.D.

In 1996 the Aboriginal Australia Art & Culture Centre - Alice Springs created the world's first online interactive didgeridoo "university" and was featured by Bill Gates when he launched Windows 98.

The didgeridoo also became a role playing instrument in the experimental and avant-garde music scene. Industrial music bands like Test Department and Militia generated sounds from this instrument and used them in their industrial performances, linking ecology to industry, influenced by ethnic music and culture.

Health benefits

A 2005 study in the British Medical Journal found that learning and practicing the didgeridoo helped reduce snoring and sleep apnea, as well as daytime sleepiness. This appears to work by strengthening muscles in the upper airway, thus reducing their tendency to collapse during sleep.

See also

• List of didgeridoo players
• Indigenous Australian music
• Native American flute

Selected bibliography

• Ah Chee Ngala, P., Cowell C. (1996): How to Play the Didgeridoo - and history. ISBN 0646328409
• Chaloupka, G. (1993): Journey in Time. Reed, Sydney.
• Cope, Jonathan (2000): How to Play the Didgeridoo: a practical guide for everyone. ISBN 0-9539811-0-X.
• Jones, T. A. (1967): "The didjeridu. Some comparisons of its typology and musical functions with similar instruments throughout the world". Studies in Music 1, pp. 23–55.
• Kennedy, K. (1933): "Instruments of music used by the Australian Aborigines". Mankind (August edition), pp. 147–157.
• Lindner, D. (ed) (2005): The Didgeridoo Phenomenon. From Ancient Times to the Modern Age. Traumzeit-Verlag, Germany.
• Moyle, A. M. (1981): "The Australian didjeridu: A late musical intrusion". in World Archaeology, 12(3), 321–31.
• Neuenfeldt, K. (ed) (1997): The didjeridu: From Arnhem Land to Internet. Sydney: J. Libbey/Perfect Beat Publications.

External links

• iDIDJ Australian Didgeridoo Cultural Hub
• The Didjeridu W3 Server
• The physics of the didj
• Didgeridoo acoustics from the University of New South Wales
• Database of audio recordings of traditional Arnhem Land music, samples included, many with didgeridoo
• The Didjeridu: A Guide General info on the didgeridoo, with citations and references