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Although daguerreotypes are unique images, they could be copied by redaguerreotyping the original. Copies were also produced by lithography or engraving. Today, they can be digitally scanned.
Although daguerreotypes are unique images, they could be copied by redaguerreotyping the original. Copies were also produced by lithography or engraving. Today, they can be digitally scanned.


Seen from the perspective of today, when developments in photography have been to increase image quality while reducing the skill and knowledge required by the camera operator, daguerreotypes are expensive and time consuming to produce, are cumbersome and heavy if many images are to be stored in large quantities,and make technical demands on the operator, but
⚫
Daguerreotypes are expensive and time consuming to produce, and cumbersome and heavy if many images are to be stored in large quantities, making technical demands on the operator, but the process is unsurpassed for reproducing fine detail over a long tonal range, and gives an illusion of reality unlike any other process.<ref>[http://www.wired.com/magazine/2010/07/ff_daguerrotype_panorama/all/1|Julie Rehmeyer ''1848 Daguerreotypes Bring Middle America's Past to Life'' Wired Magazine July 9, 2010]</ref>
when the process was introduced, illustrations in magazines were made by xylography (wood cuts) or by etching or engraving on copper plates, or by lithography and the invention of photography (photography and daguerreotypy were one and the same) made cataclysmic changes throughout society regarding what was illusion and what was reality. It was particularly significant that the first process to emerge and to be practised widely was able to faithfully record fine detail at a resolution that most of today's digital cameras are not able to match (when compared with a well exposed and sharp daguerreotype.

⚫
The process is unsurpassed for reproducing fine detail over a long tonal range, and gives an illusion of reality unlike any other process.<ref>[http://www.wired.com/magazine/2010/07/ff_daguerrotype_panorama/all/1|Julie Rehmeyer ''1848 Daguerreotypes Bring Middle America's Past to Life'' Wired Magazine July 9, 2010]</ref>


The raw material for daguerreotype plates was called ''Sheffield plate, plating by fusion'' or ''cold-rolled cladding'' and was a standard hardware item produced by heating and rolling silver [[Foil (metal)|foil]] in contact with a copper support.<ref>''The Daguerreotype: nineteenth-century technology and modern science'' By M. Susan Barger, William Blaine White</ref> Today, the silver surface is produced by electroplating.
The raw material for daguerreotype plates was called ''Sheffield plate, plating by fusion'' or ''cold-rolled cladding'' and was a standard hardware item produced by heating and rolling silver [[Foil (metal)|foil]] in contact with a copper support.<ref>''The Daguerreotype: nineteenth-century technology and modern science'' By M. Susan Barger, William Blaine White</ref> Today, the silver surface is produced by electroplating.
Line 18: Line 21:
The very first daguerreotypes were kept wrapped in paper, but the image rubbed off, so a method was devised of framing the finished plates with a protective glass cover.<ref>Eder ''History of Photography''</ref> To prevent tarnishing, the air inside the glass cover is replaced by an inert gas, such as nitrogen or argon.
The very first daguerreotypes were kept wrapped in paper, but the image rubbed off, so a method was devised of framing the finished plates with a protective glass cover.<ref>Eder ''History of Photography''</ref> To prevent tarnishing, the air inside the glass cover is replaced by an inert gas, such as nitrogen or argon.


There were two styles of preserving daguerreotypes: In the US and in Britain, the tradition of keeping miniature paintings in a leather case developed into the Union Case for daguerreotypes. The term "Union" referred to the composition of sawdust and varnish that was formed in dies and heat treated to produce relief designs- an early form of thermoplastic. These cases were made starting 1856; and the cover was lined with red velvet or plush to provide a dark surface to reflect into the plate for viewing.<ref>[http://www.phototree.com/id_dag.htm Daguerreotypecases]</ref>
There were two styles of preserving daguerreotypes: In the US and in Britain, the tradition of keeping miniature paintings in a leather case developed into the Union Case for daguerreotypes. The term "Union" referred to the composition of sawdust and varnish that was formed in dies and heat treated to produce relief designs- an early form of thermoplastic. These cases were made starting 1856; and the cover was lined with red velvet or plush to provide a dark surface to reflect into the plate for viewing and to protect the glass cassette.<ref>[http://www.phototree.com/id_dag.htm Daguerreotypecases]</ref>


The other style was common in France and was based on hanging the daguerreotype on the wall in a frame - simple or elaborate - as in the first illustration
The other style was common in France and was based on hanging the daguerreotype on the wall in a frame - simple or elaborate - as in the first illustration

Revision as of 15:44, 11 July 2013

1840–1841 Camerae obscurae and plates for Daguerreotype called "Grand Photographe" produced by Charles Chevalier (Musée des Arts et Métiers)
L'Atelier de l'artiste, an 1837 daguerre­o­type by Daguerre, claimed to be the first to complete the full process.[1]Click on the pictures to enlarge
The earliest reliably dated photo­graph of a person, taken in spring 1838 by Daguerre. Though it shows Paris' busy Boul­e­vard du Temple, the long exposure time (about ten or twelve minutes) meant that moving traffic cannot be seen; however, the two men at lower left (one apparently having his boots polished by the other) remained still long enough to be dist­inctly visible. The image is laterally (left-right) reversed, as were most daguerre­o­types, as seen in the build­ing signage at upper left.

The Daguerreotype process, /dəˈɡɛr[invalid input: 'ɵ']taɪp/ (French: daguerréotype) (occasionally called Daguerreotypy) was the first practicable photographic process. Its inventor Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, a theatrical scene painter, made an improvement on his business partner Nicéphore Niépce's success in recording the first permanent images in the camera obscura, by introducing silver chemistry.

A daguerreotype is a direct positive image made in the camera obscura on a copper plate faced with a thin layer of silver, made sensitive to light by fuming with iodine (and in later developments with bromine and chlorine). After exposing the plate in the camera, vapour from heated mercury makes the image appear. The mercury fumes are said to develop the latent image (In the early stages of daguerreotypy it was called the dormant image).[2] The image is fixed in sodium thiosulphate, or in common salt (sodium chloride) and can be toned in gold chloride.

Although daguerreotypes are unique images, they could be copied by redaguerreotyping the original. Copies were also produced by lithography or engraving. Today, they can be digitally scanned.

Seen from the perspective of today, when developments in photography have been to increase image quality while reducing the skill and knowledge required by the camera operator, daguerreotypes are expensive and time consuming to produce, are cumbersome and heavy if many images are to be stored in large quantities,and make technical demands on the operator, but when the process was introduced, illustrations in magazines were made by xylography (wood cuts) or by etching or engraving on copper plates, or by lithography and the invention of photography (photography and daguerreotypy were one and the same) made cataclysmic changes throughout society regarding what was illusion and what was reality. It was particularly significant that the first process to emerge and to be practised widely was able to faithfully record fine detail at a resolution that most of today's digital cameras are not able to match (when compared with a well exposed and sharp daguerreotype.

The process is unsurpassed for reproducing fine detail over a long tonal range, and gives an illusion of reality unlike any other process.[3]

The raw material for daguerreotype plates was called Sheffield plate, plating by fusion or cold-rolled cladding and was a standard hardware item produced by heating and rolling silver foil in contact with a copper support.[4] Today, the silver surface is produced by electroplating.

The surface of a daguerreotype is like a mirror, with the image made directly on the silver surface; it is very fragile and can be rubbed off with a finger, and the finished plate has to be angled so as to reflect some dark surface in order to view the image properly. Depending on the angle viewed and the color of the surface reflected into it, the image can change from a positive to a negative.[5] The viewer's own reflection will be seen at the same time.

When a daguerreotype is viewed, unless it is taken through a mirror, or through a prism with a silvered hypotenuse, the image will be back to front - writing will appear as if it is being read from the back. While glass lantern plates in black and white and coloured transparencies can always be flipped over, the daguerreotype is opaque, and what was photographed can only be viewed from the side of the plate facing the lens.

The very first daguerreotypes were kept wrapped in paper, but the image rubbed off, so a method was devised of framing the finished plates with a protective glass cover.[6] To prevent tarnishing, the air inside the glass cover is replaced by an inert gas, such as nitrogen or argon.

There were two styles of preserving daguerreotypes: In the US and in Britain, the tradition of keeping miniature paintings in a leather case developed into the Union Case for daguerreotypes. The term "Union" referred to the composition of sawdust and varnish that was formed in dies and heat treated to produce relief designs- an early form of thermoplastic. These cases were made starting 1856; and the cover was lined with red velvet or plush to provide a dark surface to reflect into the plate for viewing and to protect the glass cassette.[7]

The other style was common in France and was based on hanging the daguerreotype on the wall in a frame - simple or elaborate - as in the first illustration here in an essay from the Antwerp photographic museum. [8] Conservators were able to guess that a daguerreotype of Edgar Allen Poe was made in New Orleans, because the mounting was designed to hang on the wall, as in the French style.

As the daguerreotype itself is made on silver plated copper, it was suited to being mounted into lockets as was done with miniature paintings. .[9][10][11] Other imaginative uses of daguerreotype portraits were to mount them into fob watches and ornate jewelled caskets. and ornate siver boxes and items of jewelry.[12]

Today, developing daguerreotypes in mercury fumes is recognized as a health hazard as well as an environmental danger.

The Bequerel process avoids mercury altogether, but requires longer exposures.[13][14][15]

Photographing humans

At the time the process was introduced, daguerreotyping a brightly sunlit subject typically required about ten minutes of exposure in the camera, so the earliest daguerreotypes were of still lifes and landscapes. The oldest well-documented daguerreotype featuring human subjects is Daguerre's own 1838 view of the Boulevard du Temple, a busy street in Paris. The street appears deserted because the traffic (which would have been horse-drawn carriages) was moving and left no image; but a man having his shoes shined, and the bootblack, are visible because they stayed in position long enough for their images to be recorded.[16]

Reduction of exposure time

The very first daguerreotypes used Chevalier lenses that were "slow", and the light sensitive material was silver iodide made by fuming the silver plate with iodine vapor. This meant that the exposure in the camera was too long to conveniently take portraits commercially, and the first subjects taken were immobile subjects such as street scenes, still life[17] architectural studies etc.

Two changes were introduced that shortened the exposure times: one was fitting lenses of a larger diameter to the camera, and the other was a modification to the chemistry used.[18]

When Petzval[19] lenses were introduced in 1841, with a larger effective aperture and the plate was sensitized not only with iodine but also with bromine and chlorine and forming light sensitive crystals of silver iodide, silver bromide and/or silver chloride that are more light-sensitive than silver iodide [20] the exposures were reduced (the lens remaining uncapped for a shorter time), making commercial portraits viable. Increased speed was achieved using the same chemistry in the later silver processes that followed.[21] Usually, it was arranged so that the sitters leaned their elbows on a support such as a posing table whose height could be adjusted or else head rests were used that did not show in the picture and this led to most daguerreotype portraits having stiff, lifeless poses. There were exceptions with lively expressions full of character by photographers who saw the potential of the new medium, and these are represented in museum collections and are the most sought after by private collectors today.[22] Daguerreotypes were mounted in cases under glass with a cover, or else in a frame that could be hung on a wall.[23] They were usually sealed with tape to reduce oxidization and tarnishing of the plate as well as mechanical damage from being touched.

The process was developed by Louis Daguerre together with Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. Niépce had produced the first photographic image in the camera obscura with an eight hour exposure using bitumen of Judea on a pewter plate developing it in lavender oil, a process he called heliography. [2] The bitumen hardened where light had affected it, while the non-exposed portions were washed away.

Thomas Wedgwood had made outlines and silhouettes of shapes as well as using a glass negative by painting on glass to produce images on white leather using silver chemistry, but he was not successful in producing an image in the camera obscura and neither did he have a method to fix the image by dissolving out the unexposed silver salts. His images had to be viewed in a dimly lit room, and they gradually blackened entirely with exposure to light.

The image in a daguerreotype is often described as being formed by the amalgam, or alloy, of mercury and silver because mercury vapor from a pool of heated mercury is used to develop the plate; but using the Becquerel process (using a red filter and two-and-a-half stops extra exposure) daguerreotypes can be produced without mercury, and chemical analysis shows that there is no mercury in the final image with the Bequerel process. This leads to questioning the theory that the image is formed of amalgam with mercury development.[24]

Exposure times were later reduced by sensitizing the plate with other silver halides: silver bromide and silver chloride, and by replacing the Chevalier lenses with much larger, faster lenses designed by Joseph Petzval. A reduction in camera size and the size of the image will always result in more light reaching the image plane and consequently reduced exposures. This principle was used in Voigtländer's all metal Daguerrotype camera where a smaller image resulted in reducing the exposure time to two seconds.[25][26] The camera did not catch on and was not a marketing success.

Although the daguerreotype process could only produce a single image at a time, copies could be created by re-daguerreotyping the original,[27] although this proved difficult according to Joseph Maria Eder.[28] says that copying daguerreotypes in the camera was difficult, but good copies are to be found. As with any original photograph that is copied, the contrast increases. With a daguerreotype, any writing will appear back to front. Recopying a daguerreotype will make the writing appear normal, and rings worn on the fingers will appear on the correct hand etc. Another device to make a daguerreotype the right way round would be to use a mirror when taking the photograph.

The daguerreotypes of the 1852 Omaha Indian (Native American) Delegation in the Smithsonian include a daguerrotype copied in the camera (figs 3 and 4 in the link) recognizable by the contrast being high and a black line down the side of the platel[29]

Invention

Since the late Renaissance, artists and inventors had been looking for a mechanical method of capturing visual scenes.[30] Previously, using the camera obscura, artists would manually trace what they saw, or use the optical image in the camera as a basis for solving the problems of perspective and parallax, and deciding color values. The camera obscura's optical reduction of a real scene in three-dimensional space to a flat rendition in two dimensions influenced western art, so that at one point, it was thought that images based on optical geometry (perspective) belonged to a more advanced civilization. Later, with the advent of Modernism, the absence of perspective in oriental art from China, Japan and in Persian miniatures was revalued.

Daguerreotype of Louis Daguerre in 1844 by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot

Previous discoveries of photosensitive methods and substances—including silver nitrate by Albertus Magnus in the 13th century,[31] a silver and chalk mixture by Johann Heinrich Schulze in 1724,[citation needed] and Joseph Niépce's bitumen-based heliography[30] in 1822[32]—contributed to development of the daguerreotype. In 1829 French artist and chemist Louis J.M. Daguerre, contributing a cutting edge camera design, partnered with Niépce, a leader in photochemistry, to further develop their technologies.[30]

After Niépce's 1833 death, Daguerre continued to research the chemistry and mechanics of recording images by coating copper plates with iodized silver.[30] Early experiments required hours of exposure in the camera to produce visible results. In 1835 Daguerre discovered—after accidentally breaking a mercury thermometer, according to traditional accounts—a method of developing the faint or invisible images on plates that had been exposed for only 20 to 30 minutes.[30] Further refinement of his process would allow him to fix the image—preventing further darkening of the silver—using a strong solution of common salt. An 1837 still life of plaster casts, a wicker-covered bottle, a framed drawing and a curtain—titled L'Atelier de l'artiste—has been claimed to be the first daguerreotype to successfully undergo the full process of exposure, development and fixation.[30]

The French Academy of Sciences announced the daguerreotype process on January 9, 1839. Later that year William Fox Talbot announced his silver chloride "sensitive paper" process.[33] Together, these announcements mark 1839 as the year photography was born.[34]

Daguerre did not patent and profit from his invention in the usual way. Instead, it was arranged that the French government would acquire the rights in exchange for a lifetime pension. The government would then present the daguerreotype process "free to the world" as a gift, which it did on August 19, 1839. However, on August 14, 1839, a patent agent acting on Daguerre's behalf filed for a patent in England. Consequently, Britain became the only nation in which the purchase of a license was legally required to make and sell daguerreotypes.[35]

Proliferation

André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri[36] and Jules Itier[37] in France, and Johann Baptist Isenring in Switzerland, became prominent daguerreotypists. In Britain, however, Richard Beard bought the British daguerreotype patent from Miles Berry in 1841 and closely controlled his investment, selling licenses throughout the country and prosecuting infringers.[38] Among others, Antoine Claudet[39] and Thomas Richard Williams[40] produced daguerreotypes in the U.K.

Advertisement for a traveling Daguerreotype photographer, with location left blank

Daguerreotype photography spread rapidly across the United States. In the early 1840s, the invention was introduced in a period of months to practitioners in the United States by Samuel Morse,[41] inventor of the telegraph code. By 1853 an estimated three million daguerreotypes per year were being produced in the United States alone.[42] One of these original Morse Daguerreotype cameras is currently on display at the National Museum of American History, a branch of the Smithsonian Institution, in Washington, DC.[34] A flourishing market in portraiture sprang up, predominantly the work of itinerant practitioners who traveled from town to town. For the first time in history, people could obtain an exact likeness of themselves or their loved ones for a modest cost, making portrait photographs extremely popular with those of modest means. Notable U.S. daguerreotypists of the mid-19th century included James Presley Ball,[43] Samuel Bemis,[44] Abraham Bogardus,[44] Mathew Brady,[45] Thomas Martin Easterly,[46] François Fleischbein, Jeremiah Gurney,[47] John Plumbe, Jr.,[48] Albert Southworth,[49] Augustus Washington,[50] Ezra Greenleaf Weld,[51] and John Adams Whipple.[44]

This method spread to other parts of the world as well. The first daguerreotype in Australia was taken in 1841, but no longer survives. The oldest surviving Australian daguerreotype is a portrait of Dr. William Bland taken in 1845.[52] In 1857, Ichiki Shirō created the first known Japanese photograph, a portrait of his daimyo Shimazu Nariakira. This photograph was designated an Important Cultural Property by the government of Japan.[citation needed]

The daguerreotype is commonly, erroneously, believed to have been the dominant photographic process into the late part of the 19th century in Europe. Evidence from the period shows that it was in widespread use for less than twenty years before being superseded by other processes:

  • The calotype, introduced in 1841; a negative-positive process using a paper negative.
  • The collodion wet plate process introduced in 1851; a negative-positive process using halide-impregnated collodion poured from a bottle onto a glass plate and sensitized by immersion in a silver nitrate bath.

The collodion wet plate process was used to produce ambrotypes on glass and tintypes or ferrotypes on a coated iron plate.

  • The ambrotype, introduced in 1854; a negative image on glass which appeared positive when on dark "ruby" glass or backed with a black varnish or cloth.
  • The tintype or ferrotype, introduced in 1856; an image like the ambrotype, but on a thin blackened iron plate instead of glass.

Modern daguerreotypes

Although the daguerreotype process is usually said to have died out completely in the early 1860s, documentary evidence indicates that some slight use of it persisted more or less continuously throughout the following 150 years of its supposed extinction.[53] A few first-generation daguerreotypists refused to entirely abandon their beautiful old medium when they started making the new, cheaper, easier to view but comparatively drab ambrotypes and tintypes.[54] Historically-minded photographers of subsequent generations, fascinated by daguerreotypes, sometimes experimented with making their own or even revived the process commercially as a "retro" portraiture option for their clients.[55][56] The daguerreotype experienced a minor renaissance in the late 20th century and the process is currently practiced by a handful of enthusiastic devotees; there are thought to be fewer than 100 worldwide (see list of artists on cdags.org in links below). In recent years artists like Christopher Brenton West, Jerry Spagnoli, Adam Fuss and Chuck Close have reintroduced the medium to the broader art world. Its appeal lies in the "magic mirror" effect of light striking the polished silver plate and revealing a silver image which can seem ghostly and ethereal even while being perfectly sharp, and in the sense of achievement derived from the dedication and handcrafting required to make a daguerreotype.

Six daguerreotypes show a view of San Francisco, California, in 1853.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Carlisle, Rodney P. Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries: All the Milestones in Ingenuity—From the Discovery of Fire to the Invention of the Microwave Oven. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004. ISBN 0-471-24410-4
  2. ^ Joseph Maria Eder History of Photography translated from German to English by Edward Epstean Hon FRPS
  3. ^ Rehmeyer 1848 Daguerreotypes Bring Middle America's Past to Life Wired Magazine July 9, 2010
  4. ^ The Daguerreotype: nineteenth-century technology and modern science By M. Susan Barger, William Blaine White
  5. ^ Includes a daguerreotype plate angled so as to appear as a negative
  6. ^ Eder History of Photography
  7. ^ Daguerreotypecases
  8. ^ Wall preserver for daguerreotype. Princeton University
  9. ^ Daguerreotype locket
  10. ^ John Hannavy The Victorian Photographer at Work
  11. ^ Sixth-plate daguerreotype portrait of a man inserting daguerreotypes into lockets. On the table is an open locket awaiting its image.
  12. ^ The collection of Matthew R. Isenberg The Daguerreian Society
  13. ^ Andrew R. Barron The Myth, Reality and History of Mercury Toxicity
  14. ^ David A. Olson Mercury Toxicity
  15. ^ The proverbial phrase “mad as a hatter” refers to the strange behavior of poisoned hat makers who used mercury nitrate to soften and shape animal furs. This form of mercury is absorbed through the skin. Similar problems afflicted the early photographers, who used vaporized mercury to create daguerreotypes.
  16. ^ Easby, Rebecca Jeffrey. "Daguerre's Paris Boulevard". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved 13 January 2013.
  17. ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/8898962/Louis-Daguerre-and-the-pioneers-of-photography.html
  18. ^ op.cit.
  19. ^ [1]
    The Petzval Portrait Lens 1841 Department of Imaging and Printing Technology, Chulalongkorn University, Bankok, Thailand
  20. ^ Op. cit.
  21. ^ [Eder History of Photography]
  22. ^ The Chess Players Daguerreotype Musée d'Orsay
  23. ^ Daguerreotype at Princeton University with nail holes in the brass preserver from being nailed to a wall
  24. ^ The Daguerreotype: nineteenth-century technology and modern science By M. Susan Barger, William Blaine White
  25. ^ Eder, Josef Maria History of Photography
  26. ^ Museum of Imaging Technology
  27. ^ Memory.loc.gov
  28. ^ Joseph Maria Eder History of Photography
  29. ^ A Preponderance of Evidence:The 1852 Omaha Indian Delegation Daguerreotypes Recovered The evidence for determining that figure 3 was a copy daguerreotype is the black line (edge of the copper plate) that appears very clearly in figure 4— directly above and to the right of the SCOVILL MFG CO. marking, and that this daguerreotype was much higher in contrast than the other.
  30. ^ a b c d e f Stokstad, Marilyn (2005). Art History (Second ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. pp. 964–967. ISBN 0-13-145527-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Szabadváry, Ferenc (1992). History of analytical chemistry. Taylor & Francis. p. 17. ISBN 2-88124-569-2.
  32. ^ "The First Photograph - Heliography". Retrieved 2009-09-29. from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ... In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate ... The sunlight passing through ... This first permanent example ... was destroyed ... some years later.
  33. ^ Note: Talbot's early "sensitive paper" or "photogenic drawing" process, which required very long camera exposures, should not be confused with the much more practical Calotype or Talbotype process, invented in 1840 and introduced in 1841.
  34. ^ a b "A Daguerreotype of Daguerre". National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-07-17. Cite error: The named reference "NMAH" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  35. ^ Articles by R. Derek Wood on the history of the daguerreotype at "Midley History of early Photography".
  36. ^ J. Paul Getty Museum. André Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
  37. ^ J. Paul Getty Museum. Jules Itier. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
  38. ^ Wood, R. Derek. "The Daguerreotype in England: Some Primary Material Relating to Beard's Lawsuits." History of Photography, October 1979, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 305–9.
  39. ^ J. Paul Getty Museum. Antoine Claudet. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
  40. ^ J. Paul Getty Museum. Thomas Richard Williams. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
  41. ^ http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&objkey=142
  42. ^ London, Barbara, Jim Stone, and John Upton. Photography. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008.
  43. ^ Cincinnati Historical Society Library. J. P. Ball, African American Photographer. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  44. ^ a b c Newhall, Beaumont. The daguerreotype in America. 3rd rev. ed. New York: Dover Publications, 1976. ISBN 0-486-23322-7.
  45. ^ Leggat, Robert. A History of Photography from its Beginnings till the 1920s. Brady, Mathew. 1999. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
  46. ^ J. Paul Getty Museum. Thomas Martin Easterly. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  47. ^ J. Paul Getty Museum. Jeremiah Gurney. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  48. ^ J. Paul Getty Museum. John Plumbe, Jr. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  49. ^ Young America: The Daguerreotypes of Southworth & Hawes. Biographies. Albert S. Southworth. International Center of Photography and George Eastman House, 2005-2006. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
  50. ^ National Portrait Gallery. A Durable Memento. Portraits by Augustus Washington, African American Daguerreotypist. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  51. ^ J. Paul Getty Museum. Ezra Greenleaf Weld. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  52. ^ Davies, Allan; State Library of New South Wales. "Photography in Australia". Celebrating 100 years of the Mitchell Library. Focus Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-875359-66-0.
  53. ^ Nelson, Kenneth E. (1996). "A Thumbnail History of the Daguerreotype"
  54. ^ Davis, D.T. (November 1896). "The Daguerreotype in America" McClure's Magazine 8(1):4-16. Near the end of this article, the author notes that the venerable Mr. Hawes, of Southworth and Hawes, has "a number of daguerreotypes made recently, for he is one of the few operators who remain loyal to the old process". Available online from the Daguerreian society
  55. ^ Tennant, John A. (August 1902). "Copying methods" The Photo-Miniature 4(41):201 et seq. See page 202 for mention of new daguerreotypes being made circa the 1890s by recycling old plates. (Selected text available online from The Daguerreian Society)
  56. ^ Cannon, Poppy. (June 1929). "An Old Art Revived" The Mentor 17(5):36-37 Available online from The Daguerreian Society

See also

Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey

Further reading

  • Newhall, Beaumont The Daguerreotype in America ISBN 0486233227 ISBN 978-0486233222 Dover Publications.
  • Gernsheim, Helmut, and Alison Gernsheim. L.J.M. Daguerre: the history of the diorama and the daguerreotype. New York: Dover Publications, 1968. ISBN 0-486-22290-X
  • Barger, Susan M and White, William B. The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991
  • Rudisill, Richard. Mirror image: the influence of the daguerreotype on American society. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1971.
  • Coe, Brian. The birth of photography: the story of the formative years, 1800–1900. London: Ash & Grant, 1976. ISBN 0-904069-06-0.
  • Sobieszek, Robert A., Odette M. Appel-Heyne, and Charles R Moore. The spirit of fact: the daguerreotypes of Southworth & Hawes, 1843–1862. Boston: D.R. Godine, 1976. ISBN 0-87923-179-3
  • Pfister, Harold Francis. Facing the light: historic American portrait daguerreotypes: an exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery, September 22, 1978–January 15, 1979. Washington, D.C.: Published for the National Portrait Gallery by the Smithsonian Institution Press, 1978.
  • Richter, Stefan. The art of the daguerreotype. London: Viking, 1989. ISBN 0-670-82688-X.
  • Barger, M Susan, and William B White. The daguerreotype: nineteenth-century technology and modern science. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. ISBN 0-87474-348-6
  • Wood, John. America and the daguerreotype. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991. ISBN 0-87745-334-9.
  • Wood, John. The scenic daguerreotype: Romanticism and early photography. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1995. ISBN 0-87745-511-2.
  • Lowry, Bates, and Isabel Lowry. The silver canvas: daguerreotype masterpieces from the J. Paul Getty Museum. Los Angeles: The Museum, 1998. ISBN 0-89236-368-1.
  • Davis, Keith F., Jane Lee Aspinwall, and Marc F. Wilson. The origins of American photography: from daguerreotype to dry-plate, 1839–1885. Kansas City, MO: Hall Family Foundation, 2007. ISBN 978-0-300-12286-2.
  • Kenney, Adele. Photographic Cases Victorian Design Sources 1840–1870, 2001 ISBN 0-7643-1267-7.
  • Hannavy, John. Case Histories: The Presentation of the Victorian Photographic Portrait 1840–1875, 2005. ISBN 1-85149-481-2.
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