History of Cumbria

The history of Cumbria as a county of England begins with the Local Government Act 1972. Its territory and constituent parts however have a long history under various other administrative and historic units of governance. Long existing as an upland, coastal and rural area, Cumbria's heritage is characterised by a broad number of invasions, migration and settlement, as well as battles and skirmishes between the English and Scottish.

Cumbria within England

Character

Cumbria was created in 1974 from territory of the historic counties of Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire North of the Sands and a small part of Yorkshire, but the human history of the area is ancient. The region is a country of contrasts, with its mountainous central region and famous lakes, its fertile coastal plains in the north and its gently undulating hills in the south. It is a place of rock and water, and this seems to have been the key to the area's long popularity.

In the 21st century Cumbria relies on tourism and farming as economic bases, but industry has historically also played a vital role in the area's fortunes. The region might have enjoyed far greater prosperity were it not for its politico-geographical position: its proximity to Scotland has meant that for much of its history Cumbria has been disputed between the Scots and the English. Raids from Scotland were frequent until the Acts of Union 1707 and the large area of coastline also meant vulnerability to Irish and Norse raids.

Cumbria has historically been fairly isolated. Until the coming of the railway, much of the region would have been difficult to reach and even today there are routes which make most motorists a little nervous. In the harsher winter months, some of the central valleys are occasionally cut off from the outside world. This made the area something of a refuge for dispossessed peoples, which may well account for the popular conception of Cumbria as a provincial backwater: quaint and archaic. Enclaves of Brythonic Celts remained until around the 10th century, long after much of England was essentially 'English', and the Norse retained a distinct identity well into the Middle Ages. After that Cumbria remained something of a 'no mans' land' between Scotland and England, which meant that the traditional Cumbrian identity was neither English nor Scottish.

Since the Act of Union, the border areas have become more firmly English or Scottish. Whilst Cumbrians are generally hospitable to short-term visitors, they are said to have an uncertain attitude to offcomers.

Prehistory

Earliest Inhabitants

Great Langdale, site of the Langdale Axe Factory

Until around 13,000 years ago, Cumbria would have been uninhabitable because it was been completely covered with thick ice sheets, which were largely responsible for carving out the valleys of the Lake District. Although evidence has been put forward for Upper Paleolithic habitation in the south of the county, it is generally accepted by archaeologists that most of the earliest inhabitants of Cumbria arrived during the Mesolithic era, less than 10,000 years ago.

Upper Paleolithic, c.16000 - 8000 BC

The climate warmed at the end of the last Ice Age (the Devensian period), with the retreating ice uncovering Cumbria (except maybe for some ice sheets left in the central Lake District area) between around 10500 BC - 9000 BC. It is likely that the sea-level rose due to ice-melt, but this may have been offset in Cumbria by a rise in the land-levels, helping to maintain a long Irish Sea coastline. The coastal areas may have been favourable to humans, in terms of being relatively low-lying, extensive, and with a good climate.

The landscape would have been of a Tundra-like nature, with pollen analysis showing that, from c.10000 BC, juniper and birch trees were beginning to colonise the more low-lying regions. In terms of fauna, there was elk, reindeer and some evidence of horse being available in the southern areas. A cold period between c.10000 to c.8800 BC, that saw some ice return, came to an end with the result that juniper and birch returned, followed by deciduous trees (hazel, pine, oak and elm, with oak and alder being found more in Cumbria than in other northern areas). Grasses and sedges from the previous, tundra-like, era have been found trapped in peat bogs that were forming c.8000 BC in some areas.

Barrowclough says that: "the earliest evidence for human, hunter-gatherer, occupation of Cumbria dates to the Late Upper Paleolithic c.16000-8000 BC. The evidence is sparce...As a consequence it is impossible to reconstruct any meaningful pattern of occupation. Although limited, the Late Upper Paleolithic material from Cumbria is the earliest evidence of settlement in Britain this far north-west and as such is of national importance (Wymer 1981, 77)"

The only evidence of occupation of Cumbria during this period is found around the coast of Morecambe Bay, near Lower Allithwaite. Presumably, the climate was slightly warmer in the south of the county area, and access to sea-food, boat travel, and a ready-made shelter were key factors in the location of people. "Lithic material from Kirkhead Cave near Grange...has been dated to... c.11000-9500 BC" (See: Lithic flake). Other lithic blades were found at Lindale Low Cave at the mouth of the River Kent, in caves at Blenkett Wood, Allithwaite, and at Bart's Shelter, Furness (including reindeer and elk bones).

Mesolithic, c. 8000 - 4000 BC

It is thought that settlers made their way across Morecambe Bay and along the fertile coast whose resources could have been exploited. At that time the upland central region of the county was probably heavily forested and very dangerous. Large Mesolithic flint-chipping sites, where flints washed up from the Irish Sea were worked into tools, have been found at Eskmeals, near Ravenglass on the west coast, and at Walney in the south. Evidence for the Early Mesolithic period in Cumbria is largely confined to finds in caves. In the 1990s, human bones were found in Kents Bank Cavern (in the north Morecambe Bay area) which were subsequently (2013) dated to the early Mesolithic, making the find "the most northerly early Mesolithic human remains in the British Isles." (Horse and elk remains, from an earlier date, were also found). For the Late Mesolithic, evidence comes from pits at Monk Moors and burning of heathland in the Eden Valley floodplain.

In the north Cumbrian plain, around the Carlisle area and into southern Scotland, evidence has been found for woodland clearance and deliberate fire-setting as a method of managing the landscape during the Mesolithic period (c. 8000 - c. 4000 BC).

In the west, south-west of St. Bees, pollen evidence points to a low average temperature (15-16°C mean July temp. falling to approximately 10°C in the later part of the period), along with rising sea-levels.

Cumbria fits in with a Europe-wide pattern of settlement in estuarine environments - "sheltered locations around estuaries, lagoons or marine inlets" "The reason is probably due to the variety and abundance of food resources combined with fresh water and shelter that make estuaries more favoured locations than purely coastal sites". At Williamson's Moss in the Eskmeals area, Bonsall discovered 34,000 pieces of worked flint (pebble flint), chert and tuff, plus wooden raft-like structures that suggest permanent or semi-permanent settlement by the wandering hunter-gatherer population, and over 30,000 artefacts at Monk Moors These sites were probably used across several thousands of years, not just during the Mesolithic.

In the west Cumbrian plain, the evidence comes mainly from raised beaches of former coastlines, and in south Cumbria evidence of charcoal burning and small-scale clearing has been found. There is some evidence also of continuing occupation of the caves around Morecambe Bay and in the Levens Park area.

With the disappearance of the elk as the climate changed, Mesolithic Cumbrians would rely on eating wild fowl, small mammals and fish (salmon and trout), with upland areas providing red deer, auroc and wild pig. There is evidence of widespread trade in items such as flint. An increase in evidence of disturbed ground, wood-clearing and cereal pollen in Cumbria during the fifth millennium BC indicates the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic period"The evidence suggests that small-scale agriculture may have gradually become part of the Mesolithic repertoire, in addition to the established lifestyle of gathering, hunting and fishing". The earliest evidence of such cultivation comes from the coasts and the Eden Valley and dates to c.4000 BC, but the population seems to have been moving around the landscape, particularly up and down the valleys, with fresh water and also the meeting points of valleys (as at Gleaston and Breastmill Beck in Furness) being the main factors for occupation.

Neolithic, c.4500 - 2350 BC

There is much more visible evidence of Neolithic activity than of any earlier period. This consists mostly of finds of axes and the presence of monuments (stone circles, cairns). However, " there are few settlement traces represented either by physical structures or surface flintwork"..."pottery finds are...very poorly represented in Cumbria". This was a time of technological advances and population expansion. The change from Mesolithic to Neolithic in Cumbria was gradual and characterised by continuity. The change "is marked by the appearance of ...leaf-shaped arrowheads, scrapers and polished stone axes together with pottery and ceremonial and funerary monuments".

At some point, the mesolithic coastal communities must have moved further inland, probably following rivers along valley corridors into the heart of Lakeland. However, there is a question of how many moved. "The small amount of early Neolithic flintwork from the coastal plain has been taken to suggest a move away from the coast inland where the monuments of the Neolithic tend to be located. An alternative view suggests that the same level of coastal settlement and exploitation that had been common in the Mesolithic continued into the Neolithic, but that in the later period there was also an expansion of activity into other parts of the landscape"

" Our best evidence for permanent settlement, however, comes from the site of Plasketlands, near Mawbray on the Solway Plain...". Here, a ditched enclosure with large post-holes in an 'annexe' was excavated and has an Early Neolithic dating of c.4000-3300 BC. These enclosures are associated with the building of long cairns, as at Skelmore Heads and Howe Robin, and with stone axes, as at Carrock Fell. Later on, monuments would become more 'institutionalised' and develop into stone circles and henges, reflecting a more localised and settled focus to occupation, as opposed to marking meeting points for trade and exchange that had been the case earlier.

Neolithic stone axe with handle from Ehenside Tarn (now in the British Museum)

The best-known Neolithic site in the West Cumbrian Plain is Ehenside Tarn, with roughout (unfinished) and polished axes, plain bowl pottery, cattle and deer bones. The latter, plus evidence of, for example, Red Deer bones at Bardsea in South Cumbria, suggest a continuation of hunter-gathering alongside more settled, agricultural, means of living (i.e.: a mixed-farming set-up). Ehenside points up the use of wetland areas by Neolithic Cumbrians - the finds there were discovered when the Tarn was drained. "Wetland areas, whether open water or bog, were foci for beliefs and ritual practices alongside contemporary monuments, and it is, therefore, interesting to note there was a standing stone near Ehenside Tarn".

South Cumbria, and especially Furness and Walney, is the area where most of the axe finds have been made (67 examples - accounting for half of the total of axe finds in Cumbria). This is probably due to the area's proximity to the Langdale 'axe factory'. Many of the axes seem to have been intentionally deposited in moss areas and in fissures in rocks.

Castlerigg Stone Circle

Indeed, the most famous and important find of Neolithic activity in Cumbria is the so-called 'Langdale Axe Factory', where many thousands of axe heads were made from the green volcanic tuff found on the Pike O'Stickle from around 6000 BC. The axe heads were not only for local use in weapons: they have been found widely over the United Kingdom from Norfolk to Northern Ireland, and seem to have often been used for ceremonial or ritual purposes. The colouring of the stones may have had ritualistic meaning. Apparently the green rock created a sense of mystery and magic. Roughout axes have also been found at sites throughout Cumbria, suggesting that axes were originally roughed out at Great Langdale and then sent or taken to various sites where they were finished into a polished state (Ehenside Tarn, near Sellafield and Mossgarth near Portinscale seem to be examples of this 'secondary working'). A later phase indicates more finished and less wasteful working in the Langdale area itself, with fewer 'roughouts' being sent out. Most of these axes "date to the period c.2750-2000 BC when agriculture was already established", and many were deposited in wetland areas, perhaps deliberately for ritualistic reasons, rather than just having been lost.

Also at this time, possibly reflecting economic power created by the Axe Factory, stone circles and henges began to be built across the county. Indeed, " Cumbria has one of the largest number of preserved field monuments in England". The Neolithic examples include the impressive henge at Mayburgh, near Penrith, and a partly destroyed one at nearby King Arthur's Round Table (KART); as well as the Castlerigg Stone Circle above Keswick. The megalith Long Meg, along with Little Meg and a circle at Glassonby may also have been erected at this time, although they are also possibly early Bronze Age in date. The stone circles, henges, cairns and other standing stones are often grouped at nodes of communication routes - the monuments around Shap (including Oddendale, the Goggleby Stone, the Thunder Stone, the Kemp Howe circle, and Skellaw Hill (the Hill of Skulls)) form an 'avenue' (the Shap Stone Avenue) running to the east of the River Lowther along a main route to the north; the Long Meg complex runs alongside the River Eden; Mayburgh and the other henges alongside the River Eamont near its confluence with the River Lowther; Castlerigg was probably on a ridge overlooking wetlands and was (and still is) a focal point in the landscape.

Some of the stones have designs (spirals, circles, grooves and cup-marks) on them which may have indicated the presence of other monuments or gathering-places and/or signalled the trackways and other routes through the landscape, particularly through the river valleys to sources of food, to ritual gathering places, or to sources of axes.

As well as providing focal points for the gathering of people for the purposes of trade, of ritual, and, in the Late Neolithic, for more 'tenurial' settlement and ownership of land, the stone circles probably had cosmological uses as well. For example, the Long Meg stone itself, which stands outside its accompanying circle, is aligned with the circle's centre on the point of the midwinter sunset. The use of different coloured stones here is possibly linked to observations made at the times of equinoxes and solstices.

Bronze Age, c. 2500 - 700 BC

Long Meg and Her Daughters

By the Bronze Age, settlements in Cumbria are likely to have taken a much more permanent form. Like the transition from Mesolithic to Neolithic, the transition from Neolithic to Early Bronze Age was gradual and continuity of sites is likely. Unlike in southern England, where the transition is marked by the 'Beaker Period', in Cumbria and the north-west burials with beaker pottery are rare, with only a handful of such burials recorded. (Instead, circular wooden and then stone structures subsequently sealed by cairns and used over centuries was the preferred method).

In the Early Bronze Age, evidence of greatly increased woodland clearing combined with cereal growing has been found in the pollen record for the North Cumbrian Plain, Solway Firth and the coastal areas. Very little evidence of occupation exists, although a number of potential sites have been identified by aerial photographic work. The site at Plasketlands seems typical of "a combination of arable, grazing, peat, alluvium and marine resources".

Collared urns have been found at sites such as the former Garlands Hospital, Aughertree Fell, Aglionby, and at Eskmeals (with a cist burial, cremation pits, and a flint-knapping site). Activity round the Morecambe Bay region seems to have been less than in the West Cumbrian Coastal Plain, although there is evidence for significant settlement on Walney Island, and at Sizergh, Levens Park and Allithwaite where Beaker burials took place.

This southern area of the county also has approximately 85 examples of perforated axe-hammers, rarely found in the rest of the county. These, like the Neolithic stone axes, seem to have been deposited deliberately (with axe finds being more coastal in distribution). The increase in the use of these perforated axes probably accounted for the decline in the Langdale axe factory which occurred c. 1500 BC. "New designs of perforated stone axes were developed, and Langdale tuffs were discovered by experiment to be too fragile to allow perforation. Non-perforated axes were abandoned and other sources of lithic material were sought from other parts of the England. Copper and bronze tools only seem to have arrived in Cumbria very gradually through the second millennium. Indeed, by c. 1200 BC there is evidence of a breakdown in technology usage and trade between the northern, highland areas, including Cumbria, and the southern areas of the country. This was not compensated for by home-grown metallurgical working.

In terms of burial practices, both inhumations (burials of non-cremated bodies) and cremations took place in Cumbria, with cremations (268) being more favoured than inhumations (51). Most burials were associated with cairns (26) but other monuments were also used: round barrows (14); 'flat' cemeteries (12); stone circles (9); plus use of ring cairns, standing stones and other monuments. Burials for inhumations (in barrows and cairns) are found on the surface, as at Oddendale, or in pits, usually with a cist formed in it, as at Moor Divock, Askham. Cremation burials may also be found "in a pit, cist, below a pavement, or roughly enclosed by a stone cist". Often, there are multiple burials not associated with any monument - another indication of continuity with Neolithic practice. Cremated bones placed in food vessels was followed by a later practice of placement in collared or uncollared urns, although many burials had no urns involved at all. A capping stone was often placed on the urn, which could be either upright or inverted. Ritualistic deposition into Cumbrian grave-sites include: broken artefacts, such as single beads from a necklace (as at Ewanrigg); sherds of Beaker or Collared Urn pottery; bone pins, buttons, jet, slate, clay ornaments; ochre, or red porphyry and quartz crystals (as at Birkrigg, Urswick); knives, daggers and hunting equipment.

Bronze Age artefacts have been uncovered throughout the county, including several bronze axe heads around Kendal and Levens, an axe and a sword at Gleaston, an intriguing carved granite ball near Carlisle and part of a gold necklace believed to be from France or Ireland found at Greysouthen. A timber palisade has also been discovered at High Crosby near Carlisle. Again, there is continuity between Bronze-age and Neolithic practice of deposition. There seems to be an association between the distribution of stone perforated axe-hammers and bronze metalwork deposition in the area of Furness. Of the approximately 200 bronze implements found in Cumbria, about half have been found in the Furness and Cartmel region. Most are flanged axes (21), and flanged spearheads (21), palstaves (20), and flat and socketed axes (16 each). Early Bronze Age metalwork distribution is largely along communication valleys (such as the Eden valley), and on the Furness and West Cumbrian plains, with evidence on the west coast (for example, a find at Maryport) of connections with Ireland. In the Middle Bronze Age, deposition seems to have switched from burials to wet places, presumably for ritualistic reasons. In the Late Bronze Age, socketed axe finds are the most common (62), but are rare in West Cumbria, which also lacks finds of the angle-flanged type. Hoards (two or more items) of deposited Bronze Age metalwork are rare in Cumbria, (notably at Ambleside, Hayton, Fell Lane, Kirkhead Cave, Skelmore Heads), for reasons that are still being discussed. Most are from the Middle Bronze Age period.

As mentioned above, evidence of actual metalworking in Cumbria during this period is scarce. There is some sign of copper ore extraction around the Coniston area, but the most notable find is of a tuyère, (a clay pipe connecting the bellows to a furnace), found at Ewanrigg and which is a rare example from the Early Bronze Age. Two-part stone moulds have also been found at Croglin.

Little Meg - a Bronze Age ring cairn with spiral rock art

Ritual or 'religious' sites can be seen across the county and are often clearly visible. Cairns and round barrows can be found throughout the area and a cemetery has been discovered near Allithwaite. More impressive remains include stone circles, such as Birkrigg stone circle, Long Meg and Her Daughters, Swinside, and Little Meg. 32 bronze artefacts have been discovered in the Furness district covering a long period of time (c. 2300 - 500 BC), suggesting that this region was held to have special meaning to the people there. In the Late Bronze Age, defended hilltop settlements along the northern shore of Morecambe Bay, with metalworking, special functions and long-term deposition of artefacts associated with them, were probably precursors to later Iron Age hill-forts. However, many of these defended settlements appear to have been abandoned, probably due to a deterioration in the climate from c. 1250 BC to roughly the beginning of the Iron Age.

Iron Age, c. 800 BC - 100 AD

The Iron Age in Britain saw the arrival of Celtic culture - including certain art forms and languages - as well as the obvious increase in the production of iron. The people of Great Britain and Ireland were divided into various tribes: in Cumbria the Carvetii may have dominated most of the county for a time, perhaps being based in the Solway Plain and centred on Carlisle, although an alternative view has their pre-Roman centre at Clifton Dykes. The Setantii were possibly situated in the south of the county, until both were perhaps incorporated into the Brigantes who occupied much of northern England. (The status - especially that of the relationship with the Brigantes - and location of the Carvetii and Setantii is disputed by historians). They probably spoke Cumbric, a variety of the ancient British language of Brythonic, (or Common Brittonic), the predecessor of modern Welsh, and probably named some of the county's topographical features such as its rivers (e.g. Kent, Eden, Cocker, Levens) and mountains (e.g. Blencathra).

There appear to be many remains of Iron Age settlement in Cumbria, including hill forts such as those at Maiden Castle and Dunmallard Hill and many hundreds of smaller settlements and field systems. However, securely dateable evidence of Iron Age activity in Cumbria is thin. In North Cumbria, hillforts have been dated to c. 500 BC at Carrock Fell and Swarthy Hill, as well as a burial at Rise Hill and a bog body at Scaleby Moss.

Swarthy Hill, near Crosscanonby on the Solway coast - later the site of milefortlet 21 in Roman times

A large number of enclosure sites have been identified from aerial photographs in the Solway Plain. There are also possible sites re-used by the Romans at Bousted Hill and Fingland, as well as at Ewanrigg and Edderside. Early Iron Age finds in West Cumbria are limited to sites at Eskmeals and Seascale Moss (with another bog body). In the south, 'hillforts' have been identified at Skelmore Heads, Castle Head, Warton Crag and an enclosure at Urswick. However, Cumbria appears not to have any of Professor Cunliffe's 'developed hillforts', suggesting that few, if any, were still being used in the pre-Roman Iron Age, apparently having been abandoned.

The abandonment of land and settlements noted above is probably explained by climate change. Between c. 1250 BC and c. 800 BC, the climate deteriorated to the extent that, in Cumbria, upland areas and marginal areas of cultivation were no longer sustainable. Woodland clearing happened, however, combined with signs of increased soil erosion: production capacity may have been seriously affected, with agriculture being forcibly replaced by pastoralism, and with a resultant "population crisis" at the beginning of the Iron Age.

However, an improvement in climatic conditions from c. 800 BC to c. 100 AD occurred. A major de-forestation period, linked to increased cereal production, seems to have taken place (according to pollen records) towards the end of the 1st millennium BC. This is also associated with a slight rise in sea level that may explain the lack of evidence for low-lying settlements. There is sparse evidence for the Late Iron Age and early Romano-British periods. Nevertheless, enclosures seen from aerial photography in upland areas such as Crosby Garrett and Crosby Ravensworth, together with similar evidence from the Solway Plain and Eden Valley, (see the article on the Carvetii:other settlements for a listing of the main sites), point to the populous nature of the territory held by the Brigantes (as noted by Tacitus in the 'Agricola'). The view of historians now seems to be that the hillforts were becoming centres of economic activity and were less in the nature of dominating power-centres. "Indeed, the north-west, far from being a backward region of Britain in the late Iron Age, can be seen as progressive and entrepreneurial." This was true, however, only in certain areas of the north-west: the Solway Plain, the Eden and Lune valleys, and perhaps southern Cumbria and Cheshire, which may have been "thriving".

The traditional Iron Age roundhouse, enclosed by a ditch and revetted bank, was used by the Carvetii. Sometimes, dry-stone walls were used instead of the bank. However, a roundhouse at Wolsty Hall has two opposed entrances and a ring-grooved external wall, which may indicate a northern, regional variety of roundhouse building.

(Later, in the mid-Roman period, probably in the third-century, a change took place in that the round structures were replaced by rectilinear buildings on some sites).

Iron Age roundhouse reconstruction

Most of the population, the total size of which at its peak has been estimated at between 20,000-30,000 people, lived in scattered communities, usually consisting of just a single famiy group. They practised mixed agriculture, with enclosures for arable use, but also with enclosed and unenclosed pasture fields.

Evidence of burial practices is extremely rare. Inhumations have been found at Risehow, and possibly at Butts Beck (crouched individuals in pits and ditches) as well as two very rare cemeteries with multiple individuals (only approximately 30 Iron Age cemeteries exist in Britain in total) at Nelson Square, Levens and at Crosby Garrett. The Butts Beck burial included the body of a 'warrior' along with his weapons and a horse (although this might have been a horse and cart burial, rather than a warrior one, with the wooden cart having rotted away). The bog body at Scaleby and the one at Seascale are difficult to date, and, since the excavations were done in the nineteenth century and lacked today's archaeological techniques, the evidence for Druidical ritual sacrifice, as appears with some other bog bodies in Britain and Europe, is not present in the Cumbrian examples. However, both bodies were buried with a wooden stick or wand, which conforms to other bog-burial practice elsewhere. The finding of stone heads at Anthorn and at Rickerby Park, Carlisle, also conforms to the Celtic 'Cult of the Head' and ritualistic sacrifice. This may be true also of the bronze buckets or cauldrons deposited at Bewcastle and at Ravenstonedale which indicate connections with Ireland. The early name of Carlisle, 'Luguvalium', meaning 'belonging to Luguvalos', suggests a tribal chief in charge who had a personal name that meant 'strong as Lugus'. This indicates a possible affinity of the tribe there (perhaps the Carvetii) to the Celtic god Lugus, whose festival, Lugnasad, occurred on 1 August, accompanied by various sacrifices.

Hoards of deposited Cumbrian Iron Age metalwork show evidence of a regional variation, with Cumbrian hoards being mostly of weapons buried off-site and consisting of small numbers of items. This fits the picture of Iron Age Cumbria, as with the rest of the north-west, consisting mostly of small, scattered, farmsteads. In the 18th century a beautiful iron sword with a bronze scabbard, dating from around 50 BC, was found at Embleton near Cockermouth; it is now in the British Museum.

Roman Cumbria

After the Romans' initial conquest of Britain in 43 AD, the territory of the Brigantes remained independent of Roman rule for some time. At that time the leader of the Brigantes was the queen Cartimandua, whose husband Venutius might have been a Carvetian and may therefore be responsible for the incorporation of Cumbria into the Brigantian federation. It may be that Cartimandua ruled the Brigantian peoples east of the Pennines (possibly with a centre at Stanwick), while Venutius was the chief of the Brigantes (or Carvetii) west of the Pennines in Cumbria (with a possible centre based at Clifton Dykes.)

Conquest and consolidation, 71 AD - 117 AD

Despite retaining nominal independence, Cartimandua and Venutius were loyal to the Romans and in return were offered protection by their Imperial neighbours. But the royal couple divorced, and Venutius led two rebellions against his ex-wife. The first, in the 50s AD, was quashed by the Romans, but the second, in AD 69, came at a time of political instability in the Empire and resulted in the Romans evacuating Cartimandua and leaving Venutius to reign over the Brigantes.

Hardknott Roman Fort

The Roman conquest of the Brigantes began two years later. Tacitus gives pride of place in the conquest of the north to Agricola, who was later governor of Britain during 77-83 AD. However, it is thought that much had been achieved under the previous governorships of Vettius Bolanus (governor 69-71 AD), and of Quintus Petillius Cerialis (governor 71-74 AD). From other sources, it seems that Bolanus had possibly dealt with Venutius and penetrated into Scotland, and evidence from the carbon-dating of the gateway timbers of the Roman fort at Carlisle (Luguvalium) suggest that they were felled in 72 AD, during the governorship of Cerialis. Nevertheless, Agricola played his part in the west as commander of the legion XX Valeria Victrix, while Cerialis led the IX Hispania in the east. In addition, the Legio II Adiutrix sailed from Chester up river estuaries to cause surprise to the enemy.

It is likely that the western thrust was started from Lancaster, where there is evidence of a Cerialian foundation, and followed the line of the Lune and Eden river valleys through Low Borrow Bridge and Brougham (Brocavum). On the Cumbrian coast, evidence is scant, but perhaps Ravenglass and Blennerhasset, where there is evidence of one of the earliest Roman occupations in Cumbria, were involved. Beckfoot and Maryport may also have featured early on. At some point, part of Cerialis's force moved across the Stainmore Pass from Corbridge westwards to join Agricola, as evidenced by campaign camps (which may have been previously set up by Bolanus) at Rey Cross, Crackenthorpe, Kirkby Thore and Plumpton Head. Signal- or watch-towers are also in evidence across the Stainmore area - Maiden Castle, Bowes Moor and Roper Castle, for example.

In 78 AD Agricola pushed north from Deva (Chester) to Carlisle and placed garrisons between the Solway Firth and the River Tyne, consolidating his gains over the following two years. Carlisle (and Corbridge in the east) were probably used by Agricola as bases and winter-quarters for his advance into Scotland during 79 AD. With the decline of imperial ambitions in Scotland (and Ireland) by 87 AD (the recall of Agricola in 83 AD and the withdrawal of the XX legion four years later), a consolidation based on the line of the Stanegate road (between Carlisle and Corbridge) was settled upon. Carlisle was the seat of a 'centurio regionarius' (or 'district commissioner'), indicating its important status.

The Stanegate line is marked in red, to the south of the later Hadrian's Wall. (n.b. Brocavum is Brougham, not Kirkby Thore as given in the map)

The years 87 AD - 117 AD were ones of consolidation of the northern frontier area. Only a few sites north of the Stanegate line were maintained, and the signs are that an orderly withdrawal to the Solway-Tyne line was made. There does not seem to have been any rout caused as a result of battles with various tribes. Agricola may have left watchtowers at Burgh-by-Sands, Farnhill, Easton (Finglandrigg) and possibly Bowness-on-Solway. Other watchtowers at Crooklands, Cummersdale and Gamelsby Ridge protecting the agricultural coastal plain may also have existed from this time. The Stanegate road was augmented by large forts: Vindolanda (Northumberland) may date from around 85 AD, other forts dating from the mid-80's were constructed at Newbrough and at Carvoran (in present-day Northumberland), Nether Denton, and Brampton in Cumbria. Modifications to the Stangate line, with the reduction in the size of the forts and the addition of fortlets and watchtowers between them, seems to have taken place from the mid-90s onwards.

Roman milestone still in situ by the A66 near Kirkby Thore

Apart from the Stanegate line, other forts existed along the Solway Coast at Beckfoot, Maryport, Burrow Walls (near to the present town of Workington) and Moresby (near to Whitehaven). These forts have Hadrianic inscriptions, but some (Beckfoot, for example), may have dated from the late first-century. The road running from Carlisle to Maryport had turf-and-timber forts along it at Old Carlisle (Red Dial), Caer Mote, and Papcastle (which may have had special responsibility for looking after the largely untouched Lake District region). The forts in the east along the Eden and Lune valley road at Old Penrith, Brougham and Low Borrow Bridge may have been enlarged, but the evidence is scanty. A fort at Troutbeck may have been established from the period of Trajan (emperor 98 AD - 117 AD) onwards, along with an uncertain road running between Old Penrith and/or Brougham, through Troutbeck (and possibly an undiscovered fort in the Keswick area) to Papcastle and Maryport. Other forts that may have been established during this period include one at Ambleside (Galava), positioned to take advantage of ship-borne supply to the forts of the Lake District. From here, a road was constructed during the Trajanic period to Hardknott where a fort was built (the fort at Ravenglass, where the road eventually finished, was built in the following reign of Hadrian (117 AD - 138 AD)). A road between Ambleside to Old Penrith and/or Brougham, going over High Street, may also date from this period. From the fort at Kirkby Thore (Bravoniacum), which stood on the road from York to Brougham (following the present A66), there was also a road, the Maiden Way, that ran north across Alston Edge to the fort at Whitley Castle (Epiacum) and on to the one at Carvoran on the Wall. In the south of the county, forts may have existed from this period south of Ravenglass and in the Barrow and Cartmel region. The only one that survives is at Watercrook (Kendal).

Hadrian, Antoninus and Severus, 117 AD - 211 AD

Between 117 and 119, there may have been a war with the Britons, perhaps in the western part of the northern region, involving the tribes in the Dumfries and Galloway area. The Vita Hadriani ('Life of Hadrian', vol.2), the biography of Hadrian, indicates that, at the beginning of his reign, the Britons "could not be kept under control". Likewise, Marcus Cornelius Fronto, writing a decade later to the emperor Marcus Aurelius, compared the losses in Britain to those sustained in the Jewish Revolt. Whether this unrest included some kind of military disaster in Trajanic times or in the early part of Hadrian's reign, perhaps involving the Legio IX Hispana, or whether the fighting was north or south of the Stanegate limes is open to dispute. The response was to provide a frontier zone in the western sector of forts and milecastles, built of turf and timber (the "Turf Wall"), the standard construction method (although some have suggested it was because "turf and timber were preferred on the Solway plain, where stone is scarce").

For whatever reason, this was not enough for the emperor Hadrian (emperor 117 AD - 138 AD). Perhaps the decision to build the Wall was taken because of the seriousness of the military situation, or because it fitted in with the new emperor's wish to consolidate the gains of the empire and to delimit its expansion, as happened on the German frontier, (or possibly both). Hadrian, who was something of an amateur architect, came to Britain in 122 AD to oversee the building of a more solid frontier (along with other measures elswhere in England). It is possible that Hadrian stayed at Vindolanda (in present-day Northumberland) while planning the wall. Building of Hadrian's Wall along the line of Agricola's earlier garrisons began in 122 AD and was mostly completed in less than ten years, such was the efficiency of the Roman military. It ran from Bowness on the Solway Firth across the north of the county and through Northumberland to Wallsend on the Tyne estuary, with additional military installations running down the Cumbrian coast from Bowness to Risehow, south of Maryport, in an integrated fashion (and with forts at Burrow Walls and Moresby that were not part of the system).

Historians believe that the Turf Wall from the River Irthing to Bowness-on Solway was re-built in stone in two stages. The most easterly five miles were re-built at the time of Hadrian, with the remainder being re-built after 150 AD. However, this is open to dispute: it is uncertain whether the building works in the second half of the second-century were repairs to the Wall made after the abondonment of the Antonine line, or were actually completion in stone of the unfinished turf section. The second possibility might account for the finding of civilian inscription stones relating to the building of the Wall (the 'Civitas stones') - the construction of the Wall has usually been thought of as a strictly military operation.

Milefortlet 21 at Crosscanonby on the Cumbrian coast, with later, 18th-century, saltpans across the road to the left

There were several forts and milecastles along the Cumbrian half of the wall, the largest of which was Petriana, housing a cavalry regiment and which was probably the Wall's headquarters (indicating that the serious unrest was taking place in this western sector of the frontier). Nothing of Petriana has survived, the largest visible remains in Cumbria now belong to the fort at Birdoswald - very little of the Wall itself can be seen in Cumbria. Running to the north of the Wall was a ditch, and to the south an earthwork (the Vallum). Initially, forts were maintained on the Stanegate line, but in around 124 AD - 125 AD the decision was taken to build forts on the Wall itself, and the Stanegate ones were closed down. The Roman forts of Cumbria are "auxiliary forts" - that is, housing auxiliary units of infantry and cavalry, rather than a legion, as at Chester.

The Wall was built on the orders of the emperor to try to create a solid northern frontier for the Roman Empire and keep the Brigantes and neighbouring Scoti under control - some tribes (for example, the Novantae in Dumfries/Galloway and perhaps the Selgovae) were hostile to Rome. Other reasons for the building of the Wall may include the following: it helped to define who was part of "Britannia" and who was not; it gave Hadrian (and the Romans) a spectacular achievement to bolster their view of themselves as the major power in the world; and it controlled trade and movement across the frontier zone (perhaps for revenue-gathering reasons). The Solway coastal defences were probably intended to prevent outflanking attacks by the Novantae, but also to prevent economic raiding on the Solway farming communities, which may have been important suppliers of provisions for the Wall's soldiers.

Hadrian's Wall

Only twenty years after Hadrian's Wall was started, Antoninus Pius (emperor 138 AD - 161 AD) almost completely abandoned it in 138 AD, a few months after his accession, turning his attentions to his own frontier fortification, the Antonine Wall across central Scotland. Perhaps he wanted to include possible enemies (and friends) within a frontier zone, rather than beyond it, as with Hadrian's scheme. The two walls were not held in conjunction and the coastal fortifications were de-militarised as well. But Antoninus failed to secure control of southern Scotland and the Romans returned to Hadrian's Wall, which was re-furbished, in 164 AD, after which garrisons were retained there until the early 5th-century.

The Wall had cut the Carvetti's territory in half and it is possible that there was a certain amount of local raiding and uncertainty derived from them and possibly other local tribes to the north of the Wall. Continual building of the northern frontier region took place during the turn of the second and third centuries, indicating troubles. However, in the 170s and 180s the real pressure, in terms of disturbances, seems to have come from tribes much further north - the Caledones in particular. Events came to a head when the emperor Septimus Severus, intending to attack the Caledones, established himself at York in 209 AD, designating it the capital of the northern region (although this region, Britannia Inferior, may not have been formally established until after his death in 211). He also strengthened Hadrian's Wall and he may have established the "civitas" (a form of local government) of the Carvetii with its centre at Carlisle (Luguvalium).

Prosperity, troubles, and the 'return to tribalism', 211 AD - 410 AD

The settlement of Severus, carried forward diplomatically by his son Caracalla, led to a period of relative peace in the north, which lasted for most of the third-century. For the first half of the century, it appears that the forts were kept in good repair and the coastal defences were probably not being used regularly. Power may have been shared between the Civitas and the Roman military. Some forts, such as Hardnott and Watercrook, may have been de-militarised, and parts of the Wall seem to have fallen into disrepair. Evidence of smaller barrack-blocks being built, as at Birdoswald, suggest reduced manning by the army and a sharing between the military and civilian population. Changes in the military across the empire, (such as advancement of soldiers not from the senatorial classes plus greater use of 'barbarian' skilled workers), led to a more lax discipline.

Despite a more settled existence in places like Cumbria, internal strains began to affect the empire as a whole. The internal promotion reform in the army led to various people expecting promotions, which they may not have been given, and this led to tensions and violent outbreaks. Monetary inflation and splits amongst the rulers began to occur in the empire, as various pretenders vied for power in Rome, and these had deleterious effects in Britain. Rebellions in Gaul (259) and by Carausius, a naval commander who usurped power in Britain, and Allectus, who did the same (286), may have affected troops in Cumbria who were forced to take sides: a military clerk was killed at Ambleside, for example. The fight against Allectus may have led to the frontier being denuded of troops in the late third century, with consequent attacks from the north. There is evidence of fire-damage at Ravenglass and other damage elsewhere in the north. The emperor Constantius I came to Britain twice to put down trouble (in 296, defeating Allectus, and in 305 fighting the Picts), and there is evidence of re-building taking place. In the early fourth-century, defence-in-depth seems to have become the strategy in the frontier area, with the Wall becoming less of a 'curtain' barrier and more reliance being placed on the forts as 'strongpoints'.

The reforms of the emperors Diocletian and Constantine led to prosperity, in the south of the country at least, but this stability did not long outlast the death of Constantine in 337. The 330s and 340s saw a return to civil wars in the empire and, again, Britain was affected. It may be that the visit of the emperor Constans to Britain in 342-343 was to do with disaffection amongst British troops. It is possible that the west coast of England and Wales was strengthened in a way similar to that of the southern ('Saxon Shore') defensive system. How this affected the Cumbrian coast is uncertain, but it appears that the forts at Ravenglass, Moresby, Maryport and Beckfoot were maintained and occupied, and there is evidence that some of the Hadrianic coastal fortlets and towers were re-occupied, such as at Cardurnock (milefortlet 5).

The usurpation of Magnentius and his defeat in 353 may have further increased troubles in Britannia. Some years later, secret agents, known as the Areani (or 'Arcani'), operating between Hadrian's Wall and the Vallum as intelligence-gatherers, were involved in the Great Conspiracy of 367-368. They were accused of going over to the enemies of the empire, such as the Picts, the Scotti (from Ireland), and the Saxons, in return for bribes and the promise of plunder.

Some of the 'outpost-forts' north of the Wall, and others such as Watercrook, seem not to have been maintained after 367, but Count Theodosius, or maybe local 'chieftains', did a fair amount of re-building and recovery work elsewhere. There is evidence of a narrowing of the gateway at Biroswald, and structural changes at Bowness-on-Solway and Ravenglass, for example. There may also have been new fortlets at Wreay Hall and Barrock Fell, and possibly at Cummersdale, all south of Carlisle.

Birdoswald - showing partial blockage of main (east) gateway

After the 360s there appears to have been a 'marked decline in the occupation of vici'. Army supplies were increasingly shipped in from imperial factories on the continent. The continuous loss of numbers of troops (drawn away to fight elsewhere), plus the ravages of inflation, meant that there was little reason left for local inhabitants of the vici to remain. The raids by the Picts and Scots in the late fourth and early fifth centuries (the so-called 'Pictish Wars'), meant increasing strain. For example, between 385 and 398 (when Stilicho cleared the raiders out), Cumbria was 'left to its own devices'.

The various phases of re-modelling of the Birdoswald fort in the second half of the fourth-century suggest that it was becoming more like a local warlord's fortress than a typical Roman fort. It may be that local people were looking more to their own defence (perhaps influenced by Pelagian thought about self-salvation), as Roman authority waned (for example, taxation-gathering and payment to the troops gradually ceased). In the northern frontier area at least, it looks as though the local Roman fort commander became the local warlord, and the local troops became the local militia operating a local 'protection racket', without any direction from above. This was what Higham called a "return to tribalism", dating perhaps from as early as 350 onwards. The Roman 'abandonment' of Cumbria (and Britain as a whole) was therefore not a sudden affair, as the famous advice of Honorius in 410, supposedly to the Britons ( that is, to look to their own defence) suggests. The Romano-British, in the north at least, had been doing that for some time.

Life in Roman Cumbria

The severe lack of available evidence makes it difficult to draw a picture of what life was like in Roman Cumbria, and to what extent "Romanisation" took place (although the Vindolanda tablets give us a glimpse of Roman life on Hadrian's Wall). The auxiliary troops stationed in the forts obviously had an impact. Land around forts was appropriated for various uses - parade grounds, annexes (as at Carlisle), land given to retired troops for farming use, mining operations (copper in the Lake District, lead and silver around Alston), and so on. Around most forts, a Vicus (plural, 'vici') - a civilian settlement - may have been established, consisting of merchants, traders, artisans and camp-followers, drawn to the business opportunities provided by supplying the troops. The beginnings of something like town-life can be seen, but probably not with the same extent of urbanisation and wealth as in the south of England.

The Staffordshire Moorlands Pan - an enamelled cooking and serving vessel, engraved with the names of four Hadrian's Wall forts sited in Cumbria (2nd-century AD)

'Vici' associated with auxiliary forts followed the communication routes used by the Romans (in addition to the ones related to Hadrian's Wall). In the West Cumbrian plain, at Old Carlisle there was an extended vicus. The 'vici' at Beckfoot and Alauna (Maryport) have yet to be investigated. Other 'vici' existed at Nether Denton, in the Irthing valley, and at Old Penrith and Brocavum (Brougham), which were on the road from Carlisle through the Eden valley, the road then splitting with one route going south through the valley of the Lune, the other going east across the Stainmore gap to York.

Apart from settlements associated with the forts, Roman Cumbria consisted of scattered rural settlements, situated where good agricultural ground was to be found in the Solway Plain, the West Coastal Plain, and in the valleys of the Eden, Petteril and Lune. Archaeological evidence for these sites is thin and is mostly based on aerial surveys of crop marks. There is a bias towards sites in more upland areas, since lowland sites have been subject to extensive ploughing or development. The major sites identified include the following. In the Solway Plain and southern Scotland area there are Holme Abbey, Fingland, Wolsty Hall, around Old Carlisle, along the Annan Valley, east and west of Dumfries, around Newton Stewart and Wigtown Bay, along the valley of the River Wampool, at Silloth Farm, and Risehow. Along the Eden and Petteril valleys we have Dobcross Hall, Stockdalewath, Clifton Dykes, Old Penrith, Brocavum, Kirkby Thore, Yanwath Woodhouse. In the upper valleys of the Eden and Lune are Long Marton, Murton, Dufton, Berrier Hill, Waitby, Crosby Garrett (near to which a fine Roman cavalry display helmet was discovered in 2010), Ravenstonedale, between Crosby Ravensworth and Sunbiggin, in the Kirkby Stephen area, Eller Beck. In the central Lakes there is Aughertree Fell.

The Crosby Garret Helmet

The traditional Iron Age roundhouse, enclosed by a ditch and revetted bank, was used by the Carvetii during the first half of the Roman period. Sometimes, dry-stone walls were used instead of the bank. In the mid-Roman period, probably in the third-century, a change took place in that the round structures were replaced by rectilinear buildings on some sites - this may reflect a desire to copy the Roman-style building type found around the forts. However, caution has to be taken here, as round (curvilinear) and rectangular buildings seem also to have existed at the same time. Lower, valley-located, houses were often of timber and thatch; upper-slope buildings were more likely to be of stone, as the timber had already been taken for building and the land used for pasture. There is a lack of the Roman villa estate set-up to be found in the south of England

Most of the population, the total size of which at its peak has been estimated at between 20,000-30,000 people, lived in scattered, but not isolated, communities, usually consisting of just a single family group. They practised mixed agriculture, with enclosures for arable use, but also with enclosed and unenclosed pasture fields. During the second half of the Roman occupation, there seems to have been a move from agricultural land to pasture and 'waste' with building of walls and barriers - perhaps due either to a fall-off in demand for grain locally, consequent on the decline of the Roman military establishment, or to a drop in productivity.

It is difficult to assess the long-term effects of the Roman occupation on the native inhabitants of Cumbria. Everyone would certainly have been aware of their arrival in the area, and their final departure, but the locals were left much more to their own devices than those in the south of England. No doubt there was some Romanisation of the local culture, specifically among the governing élites who worked closely with the Roman military. Also, near the forts and associated 'vici', the rural population would have been providing foodstuffs and other goods (such as hides, wool, horn). Industrial working, such as the production of pottery, mining of lead, copper, quarrying of stone, although undoubtedly managed by the Roman forces, would have employed local people. So, there would probably have been a fair amount of contact, wiiling or not, between the Roman and Celtic peoples.

In a superstitious age, religion was a factor that may have helped to bridge the divide between Roman and Celtic ways of life to form a Romano-British culture. After the destruction of the Druids, there is evidence of a mixing of Roman mystery-cults with local Celtic deities, alongside formal Roman cults of the emperor and worship of the Olympian gods. For example, inscriptions to 'Mars Ocelus', a fusion of the Roman god of war with a local deity, have been found at Carlisle. An important collection of 'imperial cult' inscriptions survives at Maryport. A local deity, presumably of the Carvetii, wearing a gated crown, comes from Carlisle. A silver plaque, depicting the local deity Cocidius, has been found at Bewcastle, and the possibility that Brougham may have been linked with the god Belatucadrus has been suggested. There is some sketchy evidence of two non-Roman mystery cults, Mithraism and Christianity, in Roman Cumbria. A tombstone at Carlisle (of Flavius Antigonus Papias), and two others at Maryport and Brougham may have Christian significance. The local dialect word eglus, meaning a church, has survived from Roman times, having been incorporated into the Brythonic language from the Latin ecclesia, showing not only an acceptance of Roman culture among the locals, but also the introduction of Christianity to the region.

All in all, the old model of Roman 'conquerors' and local 'vanquished' in Cumbria and the north, is superseded by one that sees that, "within limits the local population became Romanised"

After the Romans - warring tribes and the 'Kingdom of Rheged', c.410 - 638

As outlined above, by the official Roman break with Britannia in 410, most of Britain was already effectively independent of the empire. In Cumbria, the Roman presence had been almost entirely military rather than civil, and the withdrawal is unlikely to have caused much change. Many of the Roman forts may have continued in use as places of local government and habitation; there is evidence suggesting that Birdoswald was inhabited until at least the 6th century, for example. However, many questions remain as to what post-Roman Cumbria looked like, in terms of its political and social life.

Sources - history and legend

The questions mentioned above remain to be answered because now we enter the period that used to be called the Dark Ages, due to the lack of archaeological and paleobotanical finds, and the unreliability of the documentary sources that we are forced to use as a result. Some historians, therefore, dismiss some well-known figures of the fifth- and sixth-centuries, potentially connected with Cumbria, as being legendary or -pseudo-historical. Higham, for example, consigns to this category such people as King Arthur, Cunedda (due to the unreliability of the 9th-century source, the Historia Brittonum), and Coel Hen (due to the unreliability of the source known as the Harleian genealogies). He argues that we are left with the not un-biased source, the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae of Gildas, as well as an oral and poetic tradition that includes the work of Taliesin and Aneirin, as much, if not more, literary works than historical ones. The information gleaned from all of these sources may not necessarily be factually incorrect, but in terms of the standard expected of historical verifiability, they fall short.

As far as Arthur is concerned, as with many other areas with Celtic connections, there are a number of Arthurian legends associated with Cumbria. Arthur's father Uther Pendragon is supposed to have lived at Pendragon Castle, high in the upper Eden Valley, although the castle itself is probably 12th century and was originally called Mallerstang Castle. It is also believed that Arthur's last Battle of Camlann in which he was fatally wounded was fought near the fort of Birdoswald, whose Roman name was thought to have been Camboglanna (although it is now thought that Birdoswald was really called Banna, with Castlesteads being Camboglanna). More popular in local legend are associations with Arthur's knight Lancelot, who is believed to have been from Tarn Wadling, now a dried up lake near High Hesket (and overlooked by Owain mab Urien's Castle Hewen). King Arthur's Round Table, a massive earthwork near Penrith, has no actual associations with Arthur but is said to have been a duelling ground for Lancelot. Finally, the Roman bath-house at Ravenglass, known locally as Walls Castle, was thought to be the Arthurian Lyons Garde.

Even before the Romans left Britain, it appears that Coel Hen might have been an important figure in the Roman province of Northern Britain, which covered everything between the River Humber and the River Tweed. He may have been the last of the Duces Brittanniarum ("leaders of the Britains") (sic) and as such would have commanded the army in this region. After the withdrawal, Coel Hen became the High King of Northern Britain (in the same vein as the Irish Ard Rí) and ruled, supposedly, from Eboracum (now York).

Warring tribes

The successive withdrawls of Roman troops from Cumbria throughout the fourth- and early fifth-centuries created a power vacuum which, by necessity, was filled by local warlords and their followers, often just based around a single village or valley. After the withdrawal of Stilicho in 401, the troops on the Wall were barely able to confront the raids of the barbarians to the north. These raids, as in the 360s, concentrated on the capturing of cattle and slaves, and they were seen off by the local communities themselves, so that by around 450, after the Third Pictish War, the Scots had withdrawn to Ireland and the Picts had left for Scotland north of the Forth.

Until the early-to-mid 500s, Gildas reports only occasional raiding from outside the Cumbrian area. The main strife of this period was created by the local 'tyrants', or warlords, fighting amongst themsleves, raiding and defending themselves against raids. The raids again concentrated on the stealing of goods, mainly cattle and slaves - slaving becoming an international market at this time as coinage was non-existent (Saint Patrick was one of these captured slaves, possibly taken by Irish pirates in the Irthing valley or possibly at Ravenglass).

Local 'kings' with successors were continually being made and unmade in this inter-tribal warfare, and by the end of the sixth-century some had gained a lot of power and had formed kingships over a larger area. One of these was Coroticus of Alt Clut (Strathclyde), and Pabo Post Prydain was another (he may have been based at Papcastle). Rheged seems to have been one of these members of the Old North kingdoms that emerged during this period of inter-tribal warfare. It has to be repeated, however, that the very existence, historically, of something called the 'Kingdom of Rheged' remains in dispute.

Rheged

Pabo was present at the Battle of Arfderydd (Arthuret) in 573, which may have been fought for control of the Solway. Peredur and Gwrgi were also there, and these two were supposedly descendents of the Coeling family (Coel Hen) as well as being first cousins of Urien Rheged, (lived c.550-c.590) so may have been associated with the Rheged area. The sources that mention the battle, however, (the Annales Cambriae and Aneirin's poem Y Gododdin) mention neither Rheged nor Urien, (casting doubt in the minds of some on the existence of both). It may be that Urien took advantage of the confusion and weakness as a result of this savage battle to make his move to take over Rheged, or maybe he did this after the deaths of Peredur and Gwrgi some years later (the brothers were killed fighting the Angles in 580 or 584).

The extent of Rheged is disputed: none of the early sources tells us where Rheged was located. Some historians believe that it was based on the old Carvetii tribal region - mostly covering the Solway plain and the Eden valley. Others say that it may have included large parts of Dumfriesshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire. The Kingdom's centre was based, possibly, at Llwyfenydd, believed to be in the valley of the Lyvennet Beck, a tributary of the River Eden in east Cumbria, or, alternatively, at Carlisle. However, there is no archaeological evidence in Carlisle or elsewhere to suggest the location of a 'capital' of Rheged, and the interpretations of the literary sources are equally suspect. Rheged could have been a name for a territory, or a people occupying an area, or both. A consideration of the landscape aspects of the question suggests that the Eden valley or the Rhinns / Machars area of Dumfries and Galloway offer the best places in which to locate a sub-Roman kingdom (but probably not both).

The little that is known about Rheged and its kings comes from the poems of Taliesin, who was bard to Urien, king of Catraeth and of Rheged (and possibly overlord of Elmet. It is known, from the poetic sources, that under Urien's leadership the kings of the north fought against the encroaching Angles of Bernicia and that he was betrayed by one of his own allies, Morcant Bulc, who arranged his assassination after the battle of Ynys Metcaut (Lindisfarne) around 585 AD.

The lack of documentary or even archaeological evidence from this period of Cumbria's history has meant that history and legend have become hopelessly intertwined and the fragments of certainty have become the basis of local myth. One of Cumbria's greatest heroes is Urien Rheged's son, Owain (usually Ewain in Cumbria), who is supposed to have lived at Castle Hewen, believed to be a Romano-British hillfort south of Carlisle. The poetic sources name him as the last king of Rheged (c.590), having fought with his father against the Angles of Bernicia.

The Battle of Catraeth, fought by the British (c.600 AD) to try to recover Catraeth after Urien's death, was a disastrous defeat for them. Aethelfrith, the victor, probably received tribute from the kings of Rheged, Strathclyde and Gododdin (and maybe even from the Scots of Dalriada) thereafter.

Walls Castle, Ravenglass: the possible site of the Arthurian Lyons Garde or St Patrick's birthplace

Christian saints

One aspect of the sub-Roman period in Cumbria that can be assumed with a little more certainty is the early establishment of Christianity. A number of early saints are associated with the region, including Saint Patrick, Saint Ninian and Saint Kentigern.

Patrick was born to a family of local dignitaries at Banna venta Berniae, assumed to be Ravenglass (whose Roman name was Glannaventa) or somewhere in the Solway region of Carlisle, possibly near Birdoswald. However, other, non-Cumbrian locations have also been suggested for his birthplace. Several places are traditionally associated with Patrick, such as Aspatria and Patterdale, largely because both derive their names from other historical Patricks, but there is no evidence to suggest that there is any association with these places.

Saint Ninian, born about AD 360, may have been of Cumbrian origin, although, once again, there is no evidence to confirm this. The name of Ninian has strong associations with Ninekirks near Penrith. Not only did Ninian give his name to the place, he is believed by some to have had a hermitage in the caves of Isis Parlis overlooking the present church, which was originally dedicated to him. Earthworks in the area also give tantalising clues to an early monastery here. Ninian is often credited with the conversion of the Cymry to Christianity, despite its original introduction to the area by Romans.

By the 6th century, however, it seems that the Cymry had fallen back into old pagan ways and that Saint Kentigern re-Christianised the area. Kentigern, or Mungo as he was affectionately known, was a contemporary of Urien Rheged (although one source claims that he was the illegitimate son of Owain mab Urien) who is known to have been a Christian, but his subjects might have been less devout. Around 553 Kentigern was expelled from Strathclyde, because of a strong anti-Christian movement. He fled as far as Wales, and could not find refuge in Cumbria, which was maybe also less devout. But the Christians won the battle of Ardderydd, between the Christian King Rhydderch Hael of Strathclyde and the pagan King Gwenddolau. After this Kentigern returned to Strathclyde. As mentioned above, Rheged's involvement in this battle is not clear, but it seems they may have benefited by gaining the land of Caer-Wenddolau (modern Carwinley) by the Border Esk separating Cumbria from Dumfries and Galloway, and they may have even amalgamated with Strathclyde to form a dual kingdom.

Life in 'Dark-age' Cumbria

Despite, or perhaps because of, the emergence of local chieftains and warbands, there are signs that the fifth-and sixth-centuries were not ones of economic strain in Cumbria (not more than usual, at least). De-forestation, usually an indication of increased farming production, seems to have occurred, according to the pollen records, at a steady level in post-Roman Cumbria (later than the rest of the country where de-forestation took place in Roman times). Where clearance had already occurred, it was sustained throughout these years. Flax, hemp and some cereal cultivation took place, and it appears that a "buoyant population" (in terms of numbers) enjoyed "a period of hospitable climate" up to the end of the sixth-century. At the end of the sixth-century, however, the pollen records show quite a dramatic decline in human activity in some areas - factors accounting for this may include the after-effects of a visitation of the plague in c.547.

The collapse of Roman control had caused famine in the North; this led to "brigandage and the collapse of food production". As a consequence, there was an increased pool of people who became slaves. Cumbria is likely to have become an international exporter of slaves, helping to pay for the exotic imports such as silks, wine, amber, gold and silver for the chiefs of the warbands (as noted in the poetic sources) - goods that were no longer being supplied via the Roman trading routes.

The difficulties in finding archeologically certain fifth- and sixth-century rural settlements and finds, means that the most we can say about the rural economy is that it carried on more or less in the way it had done during Roman times. That is, some cereal production in the lowland areas, pasture being favoured over arable in the northern uplands, and a "strong bias in the rural economy in favour of cattle".

Angles

Around AD 638 Oswiu, who would become the King of Northumbria, married Riemmelth (Rhiainfellt), a direct descendant of Urien Rheged and a Princess of the kingdom. This peaceable alliance between the British and English signalled the beginning of the end of Cumbrian independence, as Angles from the north east began to filter into the Eden Valley and along the north and south coasts of the county.

At the Synod of Whitby in 664, the Celtic Church of the North was abandoned in favour of the Roman Church, which was dominant in the south of England. Maybe by then much if not all of Cumbria was ruled by the Northumbrian Kings. The area seems to have undergone a full-scale conversion to the Roman faith. In 670, Oswiu's son—but not by Riemmelth—Ecgfrith ascended the throne of Northumbria and it was probably in that year that the Bewcastle Cross was erected, bearing English runes, which shows that they were certainly present in the area. But it seems that Cumbria was little more than a province at this time and, although Anglian influences were clearly seeping in, the region remained essentially British and retained its own client-kings. In 685, when Saint Cuthbert was granted lands in Cumbria by Aldfrith, the new King of Northumbria, it is said he was given Cartmel and all the Britons therein, showing that even areas where Anglian settlement was greatest, the British were still predominant.

Vikings

The northeastern Irish Sea, showing new settlements with Norse place names.

The first Norse settlers are thought to have arrived around AD 925. Unlike the invaders of Eastern England, the Vikings of Cumbria were Norwegians who came via Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. Fifty years earlier the Danes led by Halfdan had entered Cumbria through the Stainmore Pass and ransacked the area, reducing Carlisle to such a state that it remained in ruins for the next two hundred years, and annexed Cumbria to the Danelaw.

For a time, the Vikings probably just raided the coasts of the county before returning to Ireland and the Isle of Man. But they soon came to settle, and seem to have preferred the uplands of the central region, no doubt because the Angles had not penetrated so far and land was easier to come by. Their influence is still evident in the many place names, particularly in the central lakes, which include Norse elements such as dale, fell, howe and thwaite.

During this period much of Cumberland and Westmorland - traditionally as far as the Rere Cross on Stainmore - formed part of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, also known as Cumbria. One theory is that Viking colonisation was encouraged by the Cumbric speaking kings as a bulwark against the English to the South.

In 945 the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records a defeat of the Cumbrians and the harrying of Cumberland (referring not just to the English county of Cumberland but also all the Cumbrian lands up to Glasgow). Edmund I of England defeated the last Cumbrian king, Dunmail - possibly Dyfnwal III of Strathclyde. Following the defeat, the area was ceded to Malcolm I of Scotland, although it is probable that the southernmost areas around Furness, Cartmel and Kendal remained under English control.

Fibulae from the Penrith hoard

The influence of the Vikings remained strong until the Middle Ages, particularly in the central region. A Norse-English creole was spoken until at least the 12th century and evidence of the imposition of the Viking political system is shown by several possible Thing mounds throughout the county, the most significant of which is at Fell Foot in Langdale. As an example of Viking relics, a hoard of Viking coins and silver objects was discovered at Penrith.

Middle Ages

Domesday

Approximate extent of Domesday coverage

When the Normans conquered England in 1066 much of Cumbria was a no-man's-land between England and Scotland which meant that the land was not of great value. As a consequence, when the Domesday Book was compiled on behalf of William I only the southern part of the county was included and even that was only as annexes to Yorkshire.

For the most part the Cumbrian Domesday entries are little more than a list of place names and the amount of taxable land therein, with the names of the pre- and post-conquest landowners - a much sparser account than much of the rest of England. This in itself shows the isolated and remote nature of the area at this time, but the entries also provide evidence that Cumbria's prosperity had decreased significantly since the middle of the previous millennium - no doubt in part caused by the Conqueror's Harrying of the North.

Hougun

The western-most entries for Cumbria, covering the Duddon and Furness Peninsulas are largely recorded as part of the Manor of Hougun. The entry in Domesday Book covering Hougun refers to the time when it was held by Earl Tostig about 1060. The exact location of Hougun has been long disputed and Millom is often suggested, although High Haume near Dalton-in-Furness has also been suggested given that it was recorded in 1336 as Howehom. The name itself is thought to derive from the Old Norse haugr meaning 'among the hills,' which could refer to almost anywhere in the area. Houganai or island of Hougun was also the name given to nearby Walney Island.

The Hougun entry is as follows (land is measured in carucates in the north, which is roughly the amount of land assume to provide for one household for one year):

In Hougun Manor Earl Tosti had four carucates rateable to the geld.

In Chiluestreuic iii c., Sourebi iii c., Hietun iiii c., Daltune ii c., Warte ii c., Neutun vi c.,

Walletun vi c., Suntun ii c., Fordebodele ii c., Rosse vi c., Hert ii c., Lies vi c., Alia Lies ii c.,

Glassertun ii c., Steintun ii c., Clivertun iiii c., Ouregrave iii c., Meretun iiii c., Penni-

getun ii c., Gerleuuorde ii c., Borch vi c., Beretsiege iiii c., Witingham iiii c., Bodele iiii c.,

Santacherche i c., Hougenai vi c.. All these vills belong to Hougun.

Hougun (?High Haume/Millom), 4 c., Tosti

• Chiluestreuic (Killerwick, lost), 3c.
• Sourebi (Sowerby), 3c.
• Hietun (Hawcoat), 4c.
• Daltune (Dalton-in-Furness), 2c.
• Warte (Thwaite Flat), 2c.
• Neutun (Newton), 6c.
• Walletun (Waltoncote, lost), 6c.
• Suntun (?Sunbrick/Stank), 2c.
• Fordbodele (Fordbootle, lost), 2c.
• Rosse (Roose), 6c.
• Hert (Hart, lost), 2c.
• Lies (Leece), 6c.
• Alia Lies (another Leece, lost), 2c.
• Glassertun (Gleaston), 2c.
• Steintun (Stainton), 2c.
• Clivertun (Crivelton, lost) 4c.
• Ourgrave (Orgrave), 3c.
• Meretun (Marton), 4c.
• Pennigetun (Pennington), 2c.
• Gerleuuorde (Ireleth), 2c.
• Borch (?Broughton-in-Furness/Birkrigg), 6c.
• Beretseige (Bardsea), 4c.
• Witingham (Whicham), 4c.
• Bodele (Bootle), 4c.
• Santacherche (Kirksanton) 1c.
• Hougenai (Walney), 6c.

Ulvreston (Ulverston), 6c., Turulf

• Dene (Dendron), 1c.
• Bodeltun (Bolton-with-Adgarley), 6c.

Aldingham (Aldingham), 6c., Ernulf

Cherchebi (?Cartmel), Dwan from the King

Holecher (Holker), Orm from the King

Neutun (High and Low Newton), King's land

Bretebi (Birkby), Orm from the King

Further east, in what was later to become Westmorland, several other places are mentioned but with similar brevity. Most of the places are within the low lying areas around the Kent and Lune valleys. Most of the entries are in two groups: the first is land around Kendal belonging to the King which had belonged to a Gillemichael before the Conquest; and the second is land belonging to Roger de Poitou and held by one Ernwin the Priest under him:

In Stercaland, Mimet, Cherchebi, Helsingetune, Steintun, Bodelforde, Hoton, Bortun,

Daltun, Patun. Gillemichael had them. There are xx c. of land taxable in them.

In Biedun Earl Tosti had vi c. taxable. Now Roger de Poitou has them, and Ernwin the

Priest under him. In Yeland iiii c., Fareltun iiii c., Prestun iii c., Borwick ii c.,

Hennecastre ii c., Eureshaim ii c., Lefuenes ii c.

King's land

• Stercaland (Strickland Roger)
• Mimet (Mint)
• Cherchebi (Kendal) [previously known as Kirkby Kendal]
• Helsingetune (Helsington)
• Steintun (Stainton)
• Bodelforde lost
• Hoton (Old Hutton)
• Bortun (Burton-in-Kendal)
• Daltun (Dalton)
• Patun (Patton)

Biedun (Beetham), 6c., Ernwin the Priest from Roger de Poitou

• Yeland (Yealand Conyers/Yealand Redmayne), 4c.
• Fareltun (Farleton) 4c.
• Preston (Preston Patrick/Preston Richard) 3c.
• Borwick (Borwick) 2c.
• Hennecastre (Hincaster), 2c.
• Eureshaim (Heversham), 2c.
• Lefuenes (Levens) 2c.

Brebrune (Barbon), King's land

Castretune (Casterton), King's land

Holme (Holme), King's land

Hotun (Hutton Roof), King's land

Cherchebi (Kirkby Lonsdale), King's land

Lupetun (Lupton), King's land

Manzserge (Mansergh), King's land

Middeltun (Middleton), King's land

Scottish wars

It did not take long for the Normans to assert their control over the whole of Cumbria. In 1092, William II conquered Carlisle for England, beginning a period of centuries of border conflict and instability. Lands in the county were granted to Norman allies to secure the taking and almost immediately they began constructing strongholds at places such as Carlisle, Brough and Liddel to protect the new border.

In 1136 King David I of Scotland invaded Carlisle and captured it forcing King Stephen to cede much of Cumberland and Westmorland to him, and in 1139 David's son Prince Henry was created Earl of Northumberland, giving him control of the administrative area of Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmorland and Lancashire north of the River Ribble. In return for acknowledging their new King's overlordship the Norman lords of Cumbria were mostly allowed to keep their lands and their positions and there appears to have been a short period of relative peace as there are no known instances of castle building at this time.

But in 1157, Malcolm IV of Scotland surrendered the lands granted in 1136 back to England. In the period which followed, many of the great castles of Cumbria were built or strengthened, including Carlisle, Brougham, Brough and Appleby, strongly suggesting that there was a sense of insecurity at this time.

It was around this time that the ancient counties which made up modern Cumbria came into existence. Westmorland was recorded as early as 966 when it was mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, but at this time it was not an administrative district. It was mentioned again in 1131 by which time it had become a more definite political district, although it wasn't until 1177 that it was formally created from the baronies of Appleby and Kendal. After the area's recovery from Scotland in 1092, Cumberland was granted to Ranulph le Meschin as the 'Honour of Carlisle' but reverted to the Crown in 1121 when he became Earl of Chester. After being recovered from Scotland again in 1157 the barony of Copeland was added to the area to form the county as it remained until 1974; it was renamed Cumberland in 1177. Lancashire was one of the last counties to be formed in England in 1182 although its boundaries may have been fixed around 1100. Why the Furness and Cartmel peninsulas were included in the county of Lancashire when they are entirely cut off from the main body by Morecambe Bay is not immediately obvious. If the borders were settled as early as 1100 the decision may have been due to the influence of Roger de Poitou who held lands on both sides of the Bay, but it is more likely that it was a result of the cross-sands communications between Furness and Lancaster being stronger than those with Cumberland and Westmorland to the north due to the difficulties of travelling out of the area.

The 13th century was a relatively peaceful one as relations between England and Scotland remained amiable for a while following the Treaty of York in which Alexander II resigned his hereditary claim to Cumberland and Westmorland in return for several manors in both counties. It also appears to have been a period of relative prosperity, with many of the monasteries which had been established in the 12th century beginning to flourish; most notably Furness Abbey in the south of the county which went on to become the second richest religious house in the north of England with lands across Cumbria and in Yorkshire. Wool was probably the greatest commercial asset of Cumbria at this time, with sheep being bred on the fells then wool carried along a network of packhorse trails to centres like Kendal, which became wealthy on the wool trade and gave its name to the vibrant Kendal Green colour. Iron was also commercially exploited at this time and the wide expanses of Forest became prime hunting ground for the wealthy.

Furness Abbey, attacked by the Scots in 1322

Towards the end of the 13th century the peace between England and Scotland was shattered at the hand of Edward I. In 1286 he confiscated the manors granted in 1237 and in 1292 installed John Balliol on the Scottish throne and when Balliol invaded Cumbria four years later Edward defeated him and took upon the government of Scotland himself. Resistance came from Scotland in the form of William Wallace and Robert the Bruce and a three-hundred-year period of regular raids and counter-raids followed which effectively undid the years of economic progress since the Harrying of the North two centuries earlier.

Two early raids of 1316 and 1322, under the leadership of Bruce were particularly damaging and were as far reaching as Yorkshire. On the second occasion, the Abbot of Furness Abbey went to meet Bruce in an attempt to bribe him into sparing his Abbey and its lands from destruction. The Scottish King accepted the bribe but continued to ransack the entire area anyway, so much so that in a tax inquisition of 1341 the land at nearby Aldingham was said to have decreased in value from £53 6s 8d to just £10 and at Ulverston from £35 6s 8d to only £5.

Early Modern period

Border Reivers

In the three hundred years leading up to the Union of the English and Scottish crowns in 1603, as well as actual military clashes between the two countries, unrest remained constant thanks to the inhabitants of the Borderlands themselves, often called the Border Reivers. The Reivers were characterised by strong kinship bonds, forming clan-like groups under a given surname - Hetherington and Carleton were two of the most prominent in the Cumbria area. These groups became semi-autonomous from local government, owing far more loyalty to their name than to the king or local lords.

The Reivers take their name from the fact that they lived by raiding (from the Old English rēafian 'to rob'), rustling cattle and sheep from across the border and even looting the armies of their own King, such was their antipathy towards their nations. The reiving became so common and so violent by the 16th century that wealthier border families took to building bastle houses or pele towers - fortified dwellings, often with room for livestock and supplies beneath the accommodation - which are still a common site in the north of Cumbria.

Kentmere Hall, an example of a Cumbrian Pele tower

In an attempt to deal with the growing problem, the English and Scottish monarchs installed local magnates, with extensive local connections and considerable power, as wardens. In Cumbria the powerful northern families such as the Dacres and the Cliffords, who owned Brough and Brougham castles amongst many others, were often in control of the wardenship.

The problem of the reivers worsened in the last few decades of the 16th century, first because an increase in taxes forced an increase in rents which caused a breakdown of the ties between landlords and tenants, and second because many of the border families remained staunch Catholics following the Protestant Reformation. Only when the border effectively disintegrated with the Union of the Crowns in 1603 did reiving cease to dominate the lives of the border inhabitants.

Georgian and Victorian periods

Heavy Industry

• Barrow Hematite Steel Company
• Vickers Shipbuilding Engineering Limited
• Seaton Iron Works

Lakeland Poets

• William Wordsworth
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge

20th century

• 1910 Ais Gill rail accident
• 1913 Ais Gill rail accident
• World War II
  • Barrow Blitz
• Windscale fire
• 1995 Ais Gill rail accident

21st century

2000 - 2010

Leading Cumbria into the 21st century was the 2001 UK Census which showed the county as having a population of 487,607 (237,915 males and 249,692 females). The population density proved fairly low due to Cumbria being the third largest county in England. At the start of the 21st century, Cumbria was one of the least ethnically diverse regions in the country with 99.3% of individuals classing themselves as being of any 'White' background. The next national census is due in 2011 and is expected to show significant change in certain aspects of the county's demography (especially ethnicity, with the 'White' population in Cumbria being estimated at just over 97.9% in 2007 - see also Demographics of Cumbria).

Also in 2001, Cumbria saw one of the most devastating agricultural incidents of recent times. An outbreak of foot-and-mouth resulted in the killing of 10 million cattle and sheep across the UK, out of 2,000 cases nationwide 843 were in Cumbria (or 42% of all cases). Cumbria was the worst affected county in the outbreak which dominated much of the 2001 UK media coverage prior to the September 11 attacks. Cumbria's agriculture and tourism industries were severely scarred, many tourists were put off visiting the Lake District, whilst the local economy is estimated to have lost billions. After huge efforts to prevent the disease from spreading further (by killing infected animals as well as disinfecting every vehicle to enter certain parts of the county) the outbreak was officially halted in October 2001 (after begin in February the same year).

In 2001, the South Cumbrian town of Barrow-in-Furness hit global headlines after an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease, the source of the bactera was later found to be from steam coming out of a badly maintained air conditioning unit in the forum 28 media and arts centre, ultimately seven people died from contracting the disease and in total the number of cases stood at 172 it was and still remains one of the worst outbreak of its kind in recorded history (the most deadly in the UK's history). Because of the 2001 outbreak, in 2006, Barrow Borough Council became the first public body in the country to have faced corporate manslaughter charges, the charges were cleared however chief architect Gillian Beckingham and Barrow Borough Council were fined £15,000 and £125,000 respectively after both admitted breaching the Health and Safety at Work Act.

On the evening of 5 February 2004, dozens of illegal Chinese workers were collecting cockles off the Cumbrian coast when rising tides led to 23 of them eventually drowning in Morecambe Bay. The workers were all illegal immigrants, mainly from the Fujian province of China, and have been described as being untrained and inexperienced. They were being exploited by gang leader Lin Liangren who paid them £5 per 25 kg of cockles. local authorities were alerted by one of the gang members who contacted them with a mobile phone, but only one of the workers was rescued from the waters. This was partly due to the fact that the phone call was unclear both to the extent and severity of the danger, and to their location, presumably through a lack of English language ability. A total of 21 bodies, of men and women between the ages of 18 and 45, were recovered from the bay after the incident. Two of the victims were women, the vast majority were young men in their 20's and 30's and it is presumed that two more bodies were lost at sea. The disaster led to the Gangmaster Licensing Act 2004 and the formation of the Gangmasters Licensing Authority (also the perpetrator, Lin Liangren was sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment, numerous others linked with the disaster were also imprisoned on immigration offences and of perverting the course of justice).

One of several incidents to have occurred on the West Coast Main Line in the 21st century was the Tebay rail accident, on 15 February 2004 four railway workers were hit and killed by a trolley carrying lengths of rail which had not been properly secured and had run away from a maintenance yard several miles away. The boss of the rail maintenance company and a crane operator were tried on charges of manslaughter caused by gross negligence, both men were eventually jailed.

A Tesco store underwater in Carlisle during the January 2005 floods

On 8 January 2005 flooding caused massive disruption and damage across the north of the county, this was considered the worst flooding in living memory until the November 2009 Great Britain and Ireland floods, Carlisle was the worst affected location. More than 3,000 properties were affected, 60,000 homes were left without power and some areas of the city were under 7 ft (2.1 m) of water. Significant rainfall burst the banks of the rivers Eden, Kent, Derwent, Greta and Cocker. Ultimately £250 million of damage was caused.

The 2006 Morecambe Bay helicopter crash had Cumbrian authorities on standby, especially the RNLI station in Barrow, the fatal air incident occurred on 27 December 2006 at approximately 18:40 GMT, whilst transporting replacement crew between the Millom and Morecambe gas platforms. It was eventually discovered that the Eurocopter AS365N descened into sea due to pilot error and this led to the death of six men.

On 23 February 2007 train 1S83, the 17:15 Virgin West Coast Pendolino West Coast Main Line express service from London Euston to Glasgow Central was derailed by a defective set of points, the incident occurred at 20:15 GMT when 109 people were on board. 30 serious and 58 minor injuries were reported and ultimately 1 person was killed. Sir Richard Branson, owner of the Virgin empire visited the site and although was devastated by the incident claimed that "If the train had been old stock then the number of injuries and the mortalities would have been horrendous". The 2009 Cumbria earthquake refers to an event on 28 April 2009 at 11:22 am local time when an earthquake of the magnitude 3.7 struck Cumbria, England. It was recorded by the British Meteorological Society as having an epicentre approximately 8 km (5.0 mi) underneath Ulverston. The earthquake was felt by residents in Lancashire and the tremor lasted for 5–10 seconds. Phone calls were recorded from a number of people who felt the tremor in the Barrow, Carnforth and Kendal areas but there were no reports of any casualties, injuries or damages.

The site of the 2007 Grayrigg train derailment

During the night of 19 November 2009, some parts of Cumbria saw more rainfall than what is expected over the period of a whole winter month. The most intense period of rainfall broke nationwide records, and resulted in almost everywhere in the country being affected. However the worst damage occurred in the north and around Cockermouth and Workington where water rose to almost 3 meters in places, many Lakes of the Lake District overflowed and resulted in the collapse of several bridges. The flooding has so far claimed the life of one person in the county, Bill Barker a police officer who was performing his duties directing traffic away from the Northside Bridge at Workington when the bridge collapsed into the river.

On 2 June 2010 one of the worst mass shootings in British history occurred in West Cumbria. Taxi driver Derrik Bird went on a three-hour shooting spree in the towns of Whitehaven, Egremont and Seascale which ultimately claimed the lives of twelve people (which included his twin brother and a former work colleague, the other fatalities are thought to have been targeted at random). Dozens more were injured before Bird turned the gun on himself and committed suicide in a field near the village of Boot. The event also saw the complete lockdown of the Sellafield nuclear processing site, an action unseen in the plant's 50-year history.

Also worth of note are several overseas events which have affected the county. The War in Afghanistan has so far claimed the lives of three Cumbrians (two men and one woman - the UK's first female loss), whilst the War in Iraq has seen the deaths of two Cumbrian servicemen.

Timeline

BC

c.11,000	Ice sheets melt
c.8,000	Mesolithic hunter-gatherers settle coastal areas
c.6,000	Langdale Axe Factory begins
c.3,200	Castlerigg Stone Circle begun
c.1,500	Langdale Axe Factory declines

AD

c.50–59	First rebellion by Venutius against Cartimandua, failed
69	Second rebellion by Venutius, he gains possession of Brigantian kingdom
71	Roman conquest of Brigantes begins
78	Agricola advances in Cumbria and places garrisons between the Solway and Tyne
79–80	Further military campaigns by Agricola
122	Hadrian's Wall begun
142	Antonius Pius abandons Hadrian's Wall
164	Hadrian's Wall reoccupied
c.400	Romans begin withdrawing troops to Europe
410	Official end of Roman Britain, Coel Hen takes over as High King of Northern Britain
c.420	Coel Hen dies, Ceneu takes over Northern Britain
c.450	Ceneu dies; Rheged created by Gwrast Lledlwm
c.490	Gwrast Lledlwm dies; Rheged given to Merchion Gul
535	Merchion Gul dies; Rheged divided into North, given to Cynfarch Oer, and South
559	Catraeth added to Rheged lands
c.570	Cynfarch Oer dies; Urien Rheged becomes King
573	Battle of Arfderydd (Arthuret); Caer-Guenddolau added to Rheged lands
c.585	Battle of Ynys Metcaut; Urien killed by Morcant Bulc; Owain map Urien becomes King
c.597	Owain map Urien killed by Morcant Bulc
c.616	Angles of Bernacia enter Rheged
c.638	Riemmelth, Princess of Rheged marries Oswiu, Prince of Northumbria
685	St Cuthbert granted land around Carlisle, where he founds a priory, and Cartmel
875	Danes sack Carlisle
c.925	Norse arrive
927	12 July Eamont Bridge (possibly Dacre) Conference between Athelstan, King of the English, and the King of Scots, the King of Strathclyde and the Lord of Bamburgh
945	Edmund I defeats Dunmail and cedes Cumbria to Malcolm I of Scotland
1092	William II restores Cumbria to England
1136	King Stephen forced to cede Cumbria to Scotland
1157	Henry II regains Cumbria
1182	Lancashire created, including part of South Cumbria
1316	Scottish raids along the west coast as far as Furness and Cartmel
1322	Scottish raids; the Abbot of Furness attempts to bribe Robert the Bruce
1745	Battle of Clifton, last military battle fought on English soil
1951	Lake District National Park established
1974	Modern county of Cumbria established

External links

• CWAAS Homepage
• Cumbria County History Trust Homepage

See also

• List of Cumbria-related topics