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'''John III Sobieski''' ({{lang-pl|Jan III Sobieski}}, {{lang-lt|Jonas Sobieskis}}; 17 August 1629 – 17 June 1696), from 1674 until his death [[King of Poland]] and [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]], was one of the most notable monarchs of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].
'''John III Sobieski''' ({{lang-pl|Jan III Sobieski}}, {{lang-lt|Jonas Sobieskis}}; 17 August 1629 – 17 June 1696), from 1674 until his death [[King of Poland]] and [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]], was one of the most notable monarchs of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].


Sobieski's 22-year reign marked a period of the Commonwealth's stabilization, much needed after the turmoil of [[the Deluge (Polish history)|the Deluge]] and the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]].<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Aleksander Gieysztor]]|title=History of Poland|year=1979|editor= |page=223|pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |publisher=PWN, Polish Scientific Publishers|location= |isbn=83-01-00392-8|url=|accessdate=}}</ref> Popular among his subjects, he was an able military commander, most famous for his victory over the Turks at the 1683 [[Battle of Vienna]].<ref>{{cite book |author=J.A. Hammerton|title=Peoples of All Nations: Their Life Today And Story Of Their Past|year=2007|editor= |page=4142|pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |publisher=Concept Publishing Company|location= |isbn=81-7268-144-5|url=|accessdate=}}</ref> After his victories over them, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] called him the "Lion of [[Lechia|Lechistan]]"; and the Pope of Rome called him the savior of Christendom.<ref>{{cite book |author=Mario Reading|title=The Complete Prophecies of Nostradamus|year=2009|editor= |page=382|pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc|location= |isbn=1-906787-39-5|url=|accessdate=}}</ref>
Sobieski's military skill, demonstrated in wars against the [[Ottoman Empire]], contributed to his prowess as King of Poland. Sobieski's 22-year reign marked a period of the Commonwealth's stabilization, much needed after the turmoil of [[the Deluge (Polish history)|the Deluge]] and the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]].<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Aleksander Gieysztor]]|title=History of Poland|year=1979|editor= |page=223|pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |publisher=PWN, Polish Scientific Publishers|location= |isbn=83-01-00392-8|url=|accessdate=}}</ref> Popular among his subjects, he was an able military commander, most famous for his victory over the Turks at the 1683 [[Battle of Vienna]].<ref>{{cite book |author=J.A. Hammerton|title=Peoples of All Nations: Their Life Today And Story Of Their Past|year=2007|editor= |page=4142|pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |publisher=Concept Publishing Company|location= |isbn=81-7268-144-5|url=|accessdate=}}</ref> After his victories over them, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] called him the "Lion of [[Lechia|Lechistan]]"; and the Pope of Rome called him the savior of Christendom.<ref>{{cite book |author=Mario Reading|title=The Complete Prophecies of Nostradamus|year=2009|editor= |page=382|pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc|location= |isbn=1-906787-39-5|url=|accessdate=}}</ref>


==Royal titles==
==Royal titles==
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In 1662 he was again elected a deputy to the Sejm, and took part in the work on reforming the military. He was also a member of the Sejm in 1664 and 1665.<ref name=psb414/> In between he participated in the Russian campaign of 1663.<ref name=psb414/> Sobieski remained loyal to the King during the infamous [[Lubomirski Rebellion]] of 1665-66, through it was a difficult decision for him.<ref name=psb414/><ref name=psb415>Red. (Eds.), ''Jan III Sobieski'', p.415</ref> He participated in the Sejm of 1665, and after some delays, accepted the prestigious office of the [[Marshal of the Crown]] on 18 May that year.<ref name=psb415/> Around late April or early May 1666 he received another high office of the Commonwealth, that of the [[Field Crown Hetman]].<ref name=psb415/> Soon afterward, he was defeated at the conciliatory [[Battle of Mątwy]], and signed the [[Agreement of Łęgonice]] on the 21 July, which ended the Lubomirski's Rebellion.<ref name=psb415/>
In 1662 he was again elected a deputy to the Sejm, and took part in the work on reforming the military. He was also a member of the Sejm in 1664 and 1665.<ref name=psb414/> In between he participated in the Russian campaign of 1663.<ref name=psb414/> Sobieski remained loyal to the King during the infamous [[Lubomirski Rebellion]] of 1665-66, through it was a difficult decision for him.<ref name=psb414/><ref name=psb415>Red. (Eds.), ''Jan III Sobieski'', p.415</ref> He participated in the Sejm of 1665, and after some delays, accepted the prestigious office of the [[Marshal of the Crown]] on 18 May that year.<ref name=psb415/> Around late April or early May 1666 he received another high office of the Commonwealth, that of the [[Field Crown Hetman]].<ref name=psb415/> Soon afterward, he was defeated at the conciliatory [[Battle of Mątwy]], and signed the [[Agreement of Łęgonice]] on the 21 July, which ended the Lubomirski's Rebellion.<ref name=psb415/>


In October of 1667 he achieved another victory over the Cossacks of [[Petro Doroshenko]] and their Crimean Tatar allies in the [[Battle of Podhajce (1667)|Battle of Podhajce]] during the [[Polish–Cossack–Tatar War (1666–71)]].<ref name="millar" /> This allowed him to regain his image as a skilled military leader.<ref name=psb415/> Later that year, in November, his first child, [[James Louis Sobieski|Jakub Ludwik Henryk Sobieski]] was born in Paris.<ref name=psb415/> On 5 February 1668 he achieved the rank of Grand Hetman of the Crown, the highest military rank in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and thereby the ''de facto'' [[commander-in-chief]] of the entire [[Polish Army]].<ref name="millar" /> Later that year he supported the French candidacy of [[Louis, Grand Condé]] for the Polish throne, and after this candidacy fell apart, [[Philip William, Elector Palatine]].<ref name=psb415/> Following the election of [[Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki]] he joined the opposition faction; he and his allies helped [[liberum veto|veto]] several sejms (including the coronation ones), and his attitude has once again resulted in him loosing popularity among the regular szlachta.<ref name=psb415/> As his pro-French stance in politics alienated some, his military victories against invading Tatars in 1671 helped him gain other allies.<ref name=psb415/> Year 1672 saw internal politics destabilizing the Commonwealth, as the pro-French faction of Sobieski and pro-court faction of king Wiśniowiecki formed two [[konfederacja|confederations]], which despite the large Ottoman incursions in the south seemed more concerned with one another than with uniting to defend the country.<ref name=psb416>Red. (Eds.), ''Jan III Sobieski'', p.416</ref> The court faction called openly for confiscation of his estates, dismissal from the office, and declared him an "enemy of the state".<ref name=psb416/> Sobieski eventually succeeded in balancing politics and national defense, and a combination of his military victories over the invaders, and successful negotiations at the Sejm in the April of 1673 led to a compromise in which the court faction dropped its demands and challenges against him.<ref name=psb416/>
In October of 1667 he achieved another victory over the Cossacks of [[Petro Doroshenko]] and their Crimean Tatar allies in the [[Battle of Podhajce (1667)|Battle of Podhajce]] during the [[Polish–Cossack–Tatar War (1666–71)]].<ref name="millar" /> This allowed him to regain his image as a skilled military leader.<ref name=psb415/> Later that year, in November, his first child, [[James Louis Sobieski|Jakub Ludwik Henryk Sobieski]] was born in Paris.<ref name=psb415/> On 5 February 1668 he achieved the rank of Grand Hetman of the Crown, the highest military rank in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and thereby the ''de facto'' [[commander-in-chief]] of the entire [[Polish Army]].<ref name="millar" /> Later that year he supported the French candidacy of [[Louis, Grand Condé]] for the Polish throne, and after this candidacy fell apart, [[Philip William, Elector Palatine]].<ref name=psb415/> Following the election of [[Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki]] he joined the opposition faction; he and his allies helped [[liberum veto|veto]] several sejms (including the coronation ones), and his attitude has once again resulted in him loosing popularity among the regular szlachta.<ref name=psb415/> As his pro-French stance in politics alienated some, his military victories against invading Tatars in 1671 helped him gain other allies.<ref name=psb415/> Year 1672 saw internal politics destabilizing the Commonwealth, as the pro-French faction of Sobieski and pro-court faction of king Wiśniowiecki formed two [[konfederacja|confederations]], which despite [[Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76)|the large Ottoman incursions]] in the south seemed more concerned with one another than with uniting to defend the country.<ref name=psb416>Red. (Eds.), ''Jan III Sobieski'', p.416</ref> The court faction called openly for confiscation of his estates, dismissal from the office, and declared him an "enemy of the state".<ref name=psb416/> This culminated in the humiliating to the Commonwealth [[Treaty of Buchach]], where the Commonwealth was forced to cede territories to the Ottomans, but promise an annual tribute.<ref name="Magill2013-726">{{cite book|author=Frank N. Magill|title=The 17th and 18th Centuries: Dictionary of World Biography|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HaHdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA727|date=13 September 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-92414-0|page=726}}</ref> Sobieski eventually succeeded in balancing politics and national defense, and a combination of his military victories over the invaders, and successful negotiations at the Sejm in the April of 1673 led to a compromise in which the court faction dropped its demands and challenges against him.<ref name=psb416/>


On 11 November 1673, during the [[Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76)]], Sobieski added a major victory to his list, this time defeating the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in the [[Battle of Khotyn (1673)|Battle of Chocim]] and capturing the [[Chocim|fortress]] located there.<ref name="millar" /> The news of the battle coincided with the news of the death of [[Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki|Michael I, King of Poland]], who had died the day before the battle.<ref name="millar" /> This made Sobieski one of the leading figures of the state, so on 19 May the following year, he was elected monarch of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Commonwealth]].<ref name="skalmowski" /> His candidacy was almost universally supported, with only a dozen or so members of the diet opposing him (mainly centered around the Lithuanian magnate [[Pac family]]).<ref name=psb416/> In light of the war, requiring Sobieski to be on the frontlines, the coronation ceremony was significantly delayed - John Sobieski was crowned John III almost two years later, on 2 February 1676.<ref name="skalmowski" /><ref name=psb416/>
On 11 November 1673 Sobieski added a major victory to his list, this time defeating the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in the [[Battle of Khotyn (1673)|Battle of Chocim]] and capturing the [[Chocim|fortress]] located there.<ref name="millar" /> The news of the battle coincided with the news of the death of [[Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki|Michael I, King of Poland]], who had died the day before the battle.<ref name="millar" /> This made Sobieski one of the leading figures of the state, so on 19 May the following year, he was elected monarch of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Commonwealth]].<ref name="skalmowski" /> His candidacy was almost universally supported, with only a dozen or so members of the diet opposing him (mainly centered around the Lithuanian magnate [[Pac family]]).<ref name=psb416/> In light of the war, requiring Sobieski to be on the frontlines, the coronation ceremony was significantly delayed - John Sobieski was crowned John III almost two years later, on 2 February 1676.<ref name="skalmowski" /><ref name=psb416/>


===King of Poland===
===King of Poland===
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[[Image:Jan Tricius - Portrait of John III Sobieski (ca. 1680) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Portrait of John III by Jan Tricius]]
[[Image:Jan Tricius - Portrait of John III Sobieski (ca. 1680) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Portrait of John III by Jan Tricius]]
[[Image:Bacciarelli Relief of Vienna.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''Relief of Vienna'' by [[Bacciarelli]]]]
[[Image:Bacciarelli Relief of Vienna.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''Relief of Vienna'' by [[Bacciarelli]]]]
Though Poland-Lithuania was at that time the largest and one of the most populous states of Europe, Sobieski became a king of a country devastated by almost half a century of constant war. The treasury was almost empty and the court had little to offer the powerful [[magnate]]s, who often allied themselves with foreign courts rather than the state. Sobieski stabilised the situation by forcing the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] to accept a peace treaty to end the constant wars on the southern border. In the autumn of 1674, he recommenced the war against the Ottomans and managed to recapture the cities and fortresses of [[Kamieniec Podolski]], [[Bratslav]],<ref name=psb416/> [[Mohylev]],<ref name=psb416/> [[Bar, Ukraine|Bar]]<ref name=psb416/> and Reszków, which re-established a strongly fortified line defending Poland's southern border in the Ukraine.
Though Poland-Lithuania was at that time the largest and one of the most populous states of Europe,<ref name="Lupovitch2009">{{cite book|author=Howard N. Lupovitch|title=Jews and Judaism in World History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s7uLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA120|date=16 December 2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-18965-5|page=120}}</ref> Sobieski became a king of a country devastated by almost half a century of constant war.<ref name="Cummins">{{cite book|author=Joseph Cummins|title=The War Chronicles: From Chariots to Flintlocks|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=A50WWPlO-7wC&pg=PA323|publisher=Fair Winds|isbn=978-1-61673-403-9|page=323}}</ref> The treasury was almost empty and the court had little to offer the powerful [[magnate]]s, who often allied themselves with foreign courts rather than the state.<ref name="Carsten1961">{{cite book|author=F. L. Carsten|title=The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 5, The Ascendancy of France, 1648-88|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FzQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA564|date=1 January 1961|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-04544-5|page=564}}</ref><ref name="Magill2013-727">{{cite book|author=Frank N. Magill|title=The 17th and 18th Centuries: Dictionary of World Biography|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HaHdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA727|date=13 September 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-92414-0|page=727}}</ref>


Polish historian [[Oskar Halecki]] and others noted that Sobieski also planned to conquer [[Duchy of Prussia|Prussia]] with [[Swedish Empire|Swedish]] troops and French support.<ref name="pasek">{{cite book |author=Wiktor Waintraub|title=Memoirs of the Polish Baroque: the writings of Jan Chryzostom Pasek, a squire of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania|year=1976|editor= |page=308|pages= |chapter=|chapterurl= |publisher=University of California Press|location= |isbn=0-520-02752-3|url=|accessdate=}}</ref> This secret pact of 1675 (known as the [[Treaty of Jaworów]]),<ref name="Penson1">{{cite book|author=Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson|title=The Cambridge History of Poland|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N883AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA542|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-1-00-128802-4|page=542}}</ref> failed because the war with the Ottoman Empire lasted too long, during which time the Great Elector made [[Treaty of Nijmegen|treaties with France]], the Swedes were repelled, and opposition by the Commonwealth's magnates, many of them on the Great Elector's side, increased.<ref name=psb416/><ref name=psb417>Red. (Eds.), ''Jan III Sobieski'', p.417</ref>
Sobieski had a number of long term plans, including establishing his own dynasty in the Commonwealth, regaining lost territories, and strengthening the country through various reforms.<ref name="Penson538"/><ref name="Magill2013-727"/> One of his ambitions was to unify Christian Europe in a crusade to drive the Turks out of Europe.<ref name="Penson538">{{cite book|author=Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson|title=The Cambridge History of Poland|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N883AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA542|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-1-00-128802-4|page=538}}</ref> At the beginning of his reign, Sobieski also envisioned an alliance with France and the Ottomans against the Austrian [[Habsburg Monarchy]] and Brandenburg.<ref name="pasek" /><ref name="Magill2013-726"/><ref name="Magill2013-727"/>


His goals, however, had to be tempered by the immediate reality of Ottoman threat in the south. In the autumn of 1674, he recommenced the war against the Ottomans and managed to recapture a number of cities and fortresses of including [[Bratslav]], [[Mogilev]], and [[Bar, Ukraine|Bar]], which re-established a strongly fortified line defending Poland's southern border in the Ukraine.<ref name=psb416/> In 1675, Sobieski defeated the Turks and Tatar offensive aiming at [[Lviv]].<ref name="Penson542"/> In 1676, the [[Crimean Khanate|Tatars]] began a counter-offensive and crossed the [[Dneper]], but could not retake the strategic town of [[Zhuravno|Żórawno]], and the peace treaty (the [[Treaty of Żurawno]]) was signed soon afterwards.<ref name=psb416/> Although Kamieniec Podolski and much of Podolia remained a part of the Ottoman Empire, Poland counteracted its significance with the return of the towns of [[Bila Tserkva]] and [[Pavoloch]].<ref name=psb416/>
⚫
In 1676, the [[Crimean Khanate|Tatars]] began a counter-offensive and crossed the [[Dneper]], but could not retake the strategic town of [[Zhuravno|Żórawno]], and the peace treaty was signed soon afterwards.<ref name=psb416/> Although Kamieniec Podolski remained a part of the Ottoman Empire, Poland counteracted its significance with the construction of the [[Stronghold of the Holy Trinity]] and return of the town of [[Bila Tserkva]].<ref name=psb416/> The signing of the treaty began a period of peace that was much needed for the repair the country and strengthening of the royal authority. Although constantly hampered by the magnates and foreign courts of [[Electorate of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]] and [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austria]] (together with Polish enemies of Sobieski, Austria even tried to oust him and replace him with [[Charles V, Duke of Lorraine|Charles of Lorraine]]), Sobieski managed to completely reform the Polish army.<ref name="pasek" /><ref name=psb416/> The military was reorganised into regiments, the infantry finally dropped [[pike (weapon)|pike]]s, replacing them with [[battle-axe]]s, and the [[Polish cavalry]] adopted [[hussar]]s and [[dragoon]]s formations.<ref name="nagielski">{{cite book |author=Mirosław Nagielski|title=Hetmani Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów|year=1995|editor= |page=227|pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |publisher=Bellona|location= |isbn=83-11-08275-8|url=|accessdate=|language=pl}}</ref> Sobieski also greatly increased the number of guns and introduced new artillery tactics.<ref name="nagielski" />


⚫
The signing of the treaty with the Ottomans began a period of peace that was much needed for the repair the country and strengthening of the royal authority. Sobieski managed to completely reform the Polish army.<ref name="pasek" /> The military was reorganised into regiments, the infantry finally dropped [[pike (weapon)|pike]]s, replacing them with [[battle-axe]]s, and the [[Polish cavalry]] adopted [[hussar]]s and [[dragoon]]s formations.<ref name="nagielski">{{cite book |author=Mirosław Nagielski|title=Hetmani Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów|year=1995|editor= |page=227|pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |publisher=Bellona|location= |isbn=83-11-08275-8|url=|accessdate=|language=pl}}</ref> Sobieski also greatly increased the number of guns and introduced new artillery tactics.<ref name="nagielski" />
As a diplomat, Sobieski envisioned an alliance with France and the Ottomans against [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austria]] and Brandenburg.<ref name="pasek" /> However, his plans never eventuated and, by 1683, had to be completely abandoned. Conscious that Poland lacked allies and risked war against most of its neighbours (similar to the Deluge), Sobieski allied himself with [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref name=psb417/> The alliance, although aimed directly against the Ottomans and indirectly against France, had the advantage of gaining support for the defence of Poland's southern borders.<ref name=psb417/> It did not, however, end the existence of strong internal opposition to Sobieski, however it was weakened through the king's successful political maneuvering, including granting the Grand Hetman office to one of opposition's chef leaders, [[Stanisław Jan Jabłonowski]].<ref name=psb417/> The Sejm of 1683 definitely marked the end of the Polish-French alliance.<ref name=psb417/>


Sobieski also planned to conquer [[Duchy of Prussia|Prussia]] with [[Swedish Empire|Swedish]] troops and French support.<ref name="pasek">{{cite book |author=Wiktor Waintraub|title=Memoirs of the Polish Baroque: the writings of Jan Chryzostom Pasek, a squire of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania|year=1976|editor= |page=308|pages= |chapter=|chapterurl= |publisher=University of California Press|location= |isbn=0-520-02752-3|url=|accessdate=}}</ref> Regaining control of this autonomous province was in Commonwealth's best interest, and Sobieski also hoped for it to become part of his family domain.<ref name="Magill2013-727"/> This secret pact of 1675 (known as the [[Treaty of Jaworów]]), failed to bring a change in the status quo for a number of reasons. The wars with the Ottoman Empire were not decisively solved in the Commonwealth favor, during which time the Great Elector made [[Treaty of Nijmegen|treaties with France]], the [[Wars_and_battles_involving_Prussia#Swedish-Brandenburg_War_.281674.E2.80.931679.29|Swedes were repelled during their invasion]], and plans for a Commonwealth's own military campaign against Prussia run into opposition from the Commonwealth's magnates, many of them taking the Great Elector's side.<ref name=psb416/><ref name=psb417>Red. (Eds.), ''Jan III Sobieski'', p.417</ref><ref name="Penson542">{{cite book|author=Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson|title=The Cambridge History of Poland|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N883AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA542|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-1-00-128802-4|page=542}}</ref><ref name="Magill2013-727"/><ref name="Penson543-544"/> Backed by [[Electorate of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]] and Austrian [[Habsburg Monarchy]], internal enemies of Sobieski even planned to dethrone him and elect [[Charles V, Duke of Lorraine|Charles of Lorraine]]).<ref name=psb417/>
⚫
In the spring of 1683, royal spies uncovered Turkish preparations for a military campaign. Sobieski feared that the target might be the Polish cities of [[Lwów]] and [[Kraków]].<ref name="millar" /> To counteract the threat, Sobieski began the fortification of the cities and ordered universal military conscription.<ref name="millar" />


The French-Prussian treaty of 1678 meant that Sobieski's plans for a campaign against Prussia lost their major foreign ally; consequently Sobieski started to distance himself from the pro-French faction, which in turn resulted in the cooling down of the Polish-French relations; the Sejm of 1683 which saw French ambassador expelled for involvement with a plan to dethrone Sobieski definitely marked the end of the Polish-French alliance.<ref name=psb417/> At the same time he made peace with the pro-Habsburg faction, and started to gravitate more towards an alliance with Austria.<ref name=psb417/><ref name="Penson543-544">{{cite book|author=Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson|title=The Cambridge History of Poland|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N883AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA543|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-1-00-128802-4|pages=543-544}}</ref> This did not, however, end the existence of strong internal opposition to Sobieski, however it changed a number of allegiances, and further opposition was temporarily weakened through the king's successful political maneuvering, including granting the Grand Hetman office to one of opposition's chef leaders, [[Stanisław Jan Jabłonowski]].<ref name=psb417/><ref name="Penson541">{{cite book|author=Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson|title=The Cambridge History of Poland|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N883AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA541|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-1-00-128802-4|page=541}}</ref>
Sobieski's military skill, demonstrated in war against the Ottoman Empire, contributed to his prowess as King of Poland. One of his ambitions was to unify Christian Europe in a crusade to drive the Turks out of Europe. He joined the alliance of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and joined the [[Holy League (Great Turkish war)|Holy League]] initiated by [[Pope Innocent XI]] to preserve Christendom.<ref name=psb417/> The alliance was unusual in that a number of Protestants, from Germany and even the son of Prince Rupert of the Stuarts fought.

Conscious that Poland lacked allies and risked war against most of its neighbours (similar to the Deluge), by 1683 Sobieski allied himself with [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref name=psb417/> Both sides promised to come to one's another aid if their capitals are threatened.<ref name="Magill2013-727"/> The alliance, although aimed directly against the Ottomans and indirectly against France, had the advantage of gaining internal support for the defense of Poland's southern borders.<ref name=psb417/> This was a beginning of what would become the [[Holy League (1684)|Holy League]], championed by [[Pope Innocent XI]] to preserve Christendom.<ref name="Penson544-545">{{cite book|author=Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson|title=The Cambridge History of Poland|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N883AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA543|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-1-00-128802-4|pages=544-545}}</ref>

⚫
Meantime, in the spring of 1683, royal spies uncovered Turkish preparations for a military campaign. Sobieski feared that the target might be the Polish cities of [[Lwów]] and [[Kraków]].<ref name="millar" /> To counteract the threat, Sobieski began the fortification of the cities and ordered universal military conscription.<ref name="millar" />


===Battle of Vienna===
===Battle of Vienna===
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* [[Battle of Trembowla]] (1675)
* [[Battle of Trembowla]] (1675)
* Battle of Wojniłów (1675)
* Battle of Wojniłów (1675)
* [[Battle of Zurawno|Battle of Żurawno]] (1676)
* [[Battle of Żurawno]] (1676)
* [[Battle of Vienna]] (1683)
* [[Battle of Vienna]] (1683)
* [[Battle of Parkany]] (1683)
* [[Battle of Parkany]] (1683)

Revision as of 09:21, 3 June 2015

For other monarchs with similar names, see John of Poland (disambiguation).

John III Sobieski
John III by Bacciarelli
King of Poland
Grand Duke of Lithuania
Reign1674–1696
Coronation2 February 1676
PredecessorMichael
SuccessorAugustus II the Strong
Born(1629-08-17)17 August 1629
Olesko, Poland (now Ukraine)
Died17 June 1696(1696-06-17) (aged 66)
Wilanów, near Warsaw
Burial
Wawel, Kraków, Poland
SpouseMarie Casimire Louise
IssueJakub Ludwik Sobieski
Teresa Teofila Sobieska
Adelaide Luise Sobieska
La Mannone Sobieska
Teresa Kunegunda Sobieska
Aleksander Benedykt Sobieski
Konstanty Władysław Sobieski
Jan Sobieski
Brisacier
HouseHouse of Sobieski
FatherJakub Sobieski
MotherZofia Teofillia Daniłowicz
ReligionRoman Catholicism
SignatureJohn III Sobieski's signature

John III Sobieski (Polish: Jan III Sobieski, Lithuanian: Jonas Sobieskis; 17 August 1629 – 17 June 1696), from 1674 until his death King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, was one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Sobieski's military skill, demonstrated in wars against the Ottoman Empire, contributed to his prowess as King of Poland. Sobieski's 22-year reign marked a period of the Commonwealth's stabilization, much needed after the turmoil of the Deluge and the Khmelnytsky Uprising.[1] Popular among his subjects, he was an able military commander, most famous for his victory over the Turks at the 1683 Battle of Vienna.[2] After his victories over them, the Ottomans called him the "Lion of Lechistan"; and the Pope of Rome called him the savior of Christendom.[3]

Royal titles

  • Official title was (in Latin): Joannes III, Dei Gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dux Lithuaniae, Russiae, Prussiae, Masoviae, Samogitiae, Livoniae, Smolenscie, Kijoviae, Volhyniae, Podlachiae, Severiae, Czernichoviaeque, etc.[4]
  • Official title Template:Pl icon: Jan III, z łaski bożej, król Polski, wielki książę litewski, ruski, pruski, mazowiecki, żmudzki, kijowski, wołyński, podlaski i czernichowski, etc.

Biography

Youth

- Portrait of John III Sobieski (anonymous, 4th quarter of the 17th century)
Olesko Castle

John Sobieski was born on 17 August 1629, in Olesko, a small town near Lwów in Galicia, now Ukraine, then part of the Ruthenian Voivodeship in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to a notable noble family de Sobieszyn Sobieski of Janina coat of arms.[5][6] His father, Jakub Sobieski, was the Voivode of Ruthenia and Castellan of Kraków; his mother, Zofia Teofillia Daniłowicz was a granddaughter of Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski.[6] John Sobieski spent his childhood in Żółkiew.[6] After graduating from the Nowodworski College in Kraków in 1643, young John Sobieski then graduated from the philosophical faculty of the Jagiellonian University in 1646.[6][7] After finishing his studies, together with his brother Marek Sobieski, John left for western Europe, where he spent more than two years travelling.[6][8] They visited Leipzig, Antwerp, Paris, London, Leiden and the Hague.[6] During that time, he met influential contemporary figures such as Louis II de Bourbon, Charles II of England and William II, Prince of Orange, and learned French, German and Italian, in addition to Latin.[9]

Both brothers returned to the Commonwealth in 1648. Upon receiving the news of the death of king Władysław IV Vasa and the hostilities of the Khmelnytsky Uprising, they volunteered for the army.[6][10] They both fought in the siege of Zamość.[6] They founded and commanded their own banners (chorągiew) of cavalry (one light, "cossack", and one heavy, of Polish hussars).[6] Soon, the fortunes of war separated the brothers. In 1649, Jakub fought in the Battle of Zboriv.[6] In 1652, Marek died in Tatar captivity after his capture at the Battle of Batoh.[6][11] John was promoted to the rank of pułkownik and fought with distinction in the Battle of Berestechko.[12] A promising commander, John was sent by King John II Casimir to Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire as one of the envoys in a diplomatic mission of Mikołaj Bieganowski.[6][13] There, Sobieski learned the Tatar language and the Turkish language and studied Turkish military traditions and tactics.[6][13] It is likely he participated as part of the briefly allied Polish-Tatar forces in the 1655 Battle of Okhmativ.[6]

After the start of the Swedish invasion of Poland known as "The Deluge", John Sobieski was among the Greater Polish regiments led by Krzysztof Opaliński, Palatine of Poznań which capitulated at Ujście, and swore allegiance to King Charles X Gustav of Sweden.[6][13] However, around late March 1656, he abandoned their side, returning to the side of Polish king John II Casimir Vasa, enlisting under the command of hetmans Stefan Czarniecki and Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski.[6]

Commander

John III Sobieski, the victor of the Battle of Chocim.

By 26 May 1656 he received the position of the chorąży koronny (Standard-bearer of the Crown).[14] During the three-day-long battle of Warsaw of 1656, Sobieski's commanded a 2,000-man strong regiment of Tatar cavalry.[14][15] He took part in a number of engagements over the next two years, including in the Siege of Toruń in 1658.[14] In 1659 he was elected a deputy to Sejm (Polish parliament), and was one of the Polish negotiators in the Treaty of Hadiach with the Cossacks.[14] In 1660 he took part in the last offensive against the Swedes in Prussia, and received royal rewards in the form of the starost of Stryj office.[14] Soon aftward he took part in the war against the Russians, participating in the Battle of Slobodyshche and Battle of Lyubar, and later that year he again was one of the negotiators of a new treaty with the Cossacks (the Treaty of Cudnów).[14]

Through personal connections, he became a strong supporter of the French faction in the Polish royal court, represented by Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga. His pro-French allegiance would be reinforced in 1665, when he married Marie Casimire Louise de la Grange d'Arquien and was promoted to the rank of Grand Marshal of the Crown and, the following year, to the rank of Field Hetman of the Crown.[5]

In 1662 he was again elected a deputy to the Sejm, and took part in the work on reforming the military. He was also a member of the Sejm in 1664 and 1665.[14] In between he participated in the Russian campaign of 1663.[14] Sobieski remained loyal to the King during the infamous Lubomirski Rebellion of 1665-66, through it was a difficult decision for him.[14][16] He participated in the Sejm of 1665, and after some delays, accepted the prestigious office of the Marshal of the Crown on 18 May that year.[16] Around late April or early May 1666 he received another high office of the Commonwealth, that of the Field Crown Hetman.[16] Soon afterward, he was defeated at the conciliatory Battle of Mątwy, and signed the Agreement of Łęgonice on the 21 July, which ended the Lubomirski's Rebellion.[16]

In October of 1667 he achieved another victory over the Cossacks of Petro Doroshenko and their Crimean Tatar allies in the Battle of Podhajce during the Polish–Cossack–Tatar War (1666–71).[13] This allowed him to regain his image as a skilled military leader.[16] Later that year, in November, his first child, Jakub Ludwik Henryk Sobieski was born in Paris.[16] On 5 February 1668 he achieved the rank of Grand Hetman of the Crown, the highest military rank in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and thereby the de facto commander-in-chief of the entire Polish Army.[13] Later that year he supported the French candidacy of Louis, Grand Condé for the Polish throne, and after this candidacy fell apart, Philip William, Elector Palatine.[16] Following the election of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki he joined the opposition faction; he and his allies helped veto several sejms (including the coronation ones), and his attitude has once again resulted in him loosing popularity among the regular szlachta.[16] As his pro-French stance in politics alienated some, his military victories against invading Tatars in 1671 helped him gain other allies.[16] Year 1672 saw internal politics destabilizing the Commonwealth, as the pro-French faction of Sobieski and pro-court faction of king Wiśniowiecki formed two confederations, which despite the large Ottoman incursions in the south seemed more concerned with one another than with uniting to defend the country.[17] The court faction called openly for confiscation of his estates, dismissal from the office, and declared him an "enemy of the state".[17] This culminated in the humiliating to the Commonwealth Treaty of Buchach, where the Commonwealth was forced to cede territories to the Ottomans, but promise an annual tribute.[18] Sobieski eventually succeeded in balancing politics and national defense, and a combination of his military victories over the invaders, and successful negotiations at the Sejm in the April of 1673 led to a compromise in which the court faction dropped its demands and challenges against him.[17]

On 11 November 1673 Sobieski added a major victory to his list, this time defeating the Ottomans in the Battle of Chocim and capturing the fortress located there.[13] The news of the battle coincided with the news of the death of Michael I, King of Poland, who had died the day before the battle.[13] This made Sobieski one of the leading figures of the state, so on 19 May the following year, he was elected monarch of the Commonwealth.[5] His candidacy was almost universally supported, with only a dozen or so members of the diet opposing him (mainly centered around the Lithuanian magnate Pac family).[17] In light of the war, requiring Sobieski to be on the frontlines, the coronation ceremony was significantly delayed - John Sobieski was crowned John III almost two years later, on 2 February 1676.[5][17]

King of Poland

Sobieski's coronation (1676), relief, Wilanów Palace
Portrait of John III by Jan Tricius
Relief of Vienna by Bacciarelli

Though Poland-Lithuania was at that time the largest and one of the most populous states of Europe,[19] Sobieski became a king of a country devastated by almost half a century of constant war.[20] The treasury was almost empty and the court had little to offer the powerful magnates, who often allied themselves with foreign courts rather than the state.[21][22]

Sobieski had a number of long term plans, including establishing his own dynasty in the Commonwealth, regaining lost territories, and strengthening the country through various reforms.[23][22] One of his ambitions was to unify Christian Europe in a crusade to drive the Turks out of Europe.[23] At the beginning of his reign, Sobieski also envisioned an alliance with France and the Ottomans against the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and Brandenburg.[24][18][22]

His goals, however, had to be tempered by the immediate reality of Ottoman threat in the south. In the autumn of 1674, he recommenced the war against the Ottomans and managed to recapture a number of cities and fortresses of including Bratslav, Mogilev, and Bar, which re-established a strongly fortified line defending Poland's southern border in the Ukraine.[17] In 1675, Sobieski defeated the Turks and Tatar offensive aiming at Lviv.[25] In 1676, the Tatars began a counter-offensive and crossed the Dneper, but could not retake the strategic town of Żórawno, and the peace treaty (the Treaty of Żurawno) was signed soon afterwards.[17] Although Kamieniec Podolski and much of Podolia remained a part of the Ottoman Empire, Poland counteracted its significance with the return of the towns of Bila Tserkva and Pavoloch.[17]

The signing of the treaty with the Ottomans began a period of peace that was much needed for the repair the country and strengthening of the royal authority. Sobieski managed to completely reform the Polish army.[24] The military was reorganised into regiments, the infantry finally dropped pikes, replacing them with battle-axes, and the Polish cavalry adopted hussars and dragoons formations.[26] Sobieski also greatly increased the number of guns and introduced new artillery tactics.[26]

Sobieski also planned to conquer Prussia with Swedish troops and French support.[24] Regaining control of this autonomous province was in Commonwealth's best interest, and Sobieski also hoped for it to become part of his family domain.[22] This secret pact of 1675 (known as the Treaty of Jaworów), failed to bring a change in the status quo for a number of reasons. The wars with the Ottoman Empire were not decisively solved in the Commonwealth favor, during which time the Great Elector made treaties with France, the Swedes were repelled during their invasion, and plans for a Commonwealth's own military campaign against Prussia run into opposition from the Commonwealth's magnates, many of them taking the Great Elector's side.[17][27][25][22][28] Backed by Brandenburg and Austrian Habsburg Monarchy, internal enemies of Sobieski even planned to dethrone him and elect Charles of Lorraine).[27]

The French-Prussian treaty of 1678 meant that Sobieski's plans for a campaign against Prussia lost their major foreign ally; consequently Sobieski started to distance himself from the pro-French faction, which in turn resulted in the cooling down of the Polish-French relations; the Sejm of 1683 which saw French ambassador expelled for involvement with a plan to dethrone Sobieski definitely marked the end of the Polish-French alliance.[27] At the same time he made peace with the pro-Habsburg faction, and started to gravitate more towards an alliance with Austria.[27][28] This did not, however, end the existence of strong internal opposition to Sobieski, however it changed a number of allegiances, and further opposition was temporarily weakened through the king's successful political maneuvering, including granting the Grand Hetman office to one of opposition's chef leaders, Stanisław Jan Jabłonowski.[27][29]

Conscious that Poland lacked allies and risked war against most of its neighbours (similar to the Deluge), by 1683 Sobieski allied himself with Leopold I, of the Holy Roman Empire.[27] Both sides promised to come to one's another aid if their capitals are threatened.[22] The alliance, although aimed directly against the Ottomans and indirectly against France, had the advantage of gaining internal support for the defense of Poland's southern borders.[27] This was a beginning of what would become the Holy League, championed by Pope Innocent XI to preserve Christendom.[30]

Meantime, in the spring of 1683, royal spies uncovered Turkish preparations for a military campaign. Sobieski feared that the target might be the Polish cities of Lwów and Kraków.[13] To counteract the threat, Sobieski began the fortification of the cities and ordered universal military conscription.[13]

Battle of Vienna

Main article: Battle of Vienna
Sobieski sending message of victory to the Pope after the Battle of Vienna, by Jan Matejko, 1880, National Museum, Kraków

Sobieski's greatest success came in 1683, with his victory at the Battle of Vienna, in joint command of Polish, Austrian and German troops, against the invading Ottoman Turks under Kara Mustafa.

Upon reaching Vienna, Sobieski had planned to attack on 13 September, but with the Ottoman army close to breaching the walls, he ordered a full attack on 12 September. At 4 am, the united army of about 81,000 men attacked a Turkish force of about 130,000 men. At about 5 pm, after observing the infantry battle from the hilltop, Sobieski led the Polish husaria cavalry along with Austrians and Germans in a massive charge down the hillside. Soon, the Ottoman battle line was broken and the Ottoman forces scattered in disarray. At 5:30 pm, Sobieski entered the deserted tent of Kara Mustafa and the Battle of Vienna ended.

The Pope and other foreign dignitaries hailed Sobieski as the "Savior of Vienna and Western European civilization."[31] In a letter to his wife, he wrote, "All the common people kissed my hands, my feet, my clothes; others only touched me, saying: 'Ah, let us kiss so valiant a hand!'"[32]

Later years and death

Sobieski and his sons

Although the King spent much time on the battlefields, which could suggest a good state of health, towards the end of his life he became seriously and increasingly ill. Notably Sobieski suffered from obesity, gout, kidney stones, hypertension and inflammation of the sinuses, and syphilis which he acquired in France. Additionally, the highly unsuccessful and dangerous use of mercury as a treatment for syphilis led to the adverse effects of nephrotoxicity.

King John III Sobieski died in Wilanów, Poland on 17 June 1696 from a sudden heart attack which was most probably caused by the overall weakening of the body by previous illnesses. His wife, Marie Casimire Louise, died in 1716 in Blois, France, and her body was returned to Poland. They are interred together in Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland.

He was succeeded by Augustus II who stayed in power primarily because of Saxon and Russian support. On his death in 1733, a struggle for the crown of Poland ensued and caused the War of the Polish Succession.

Sobieski's battles

Portrayal of Sobieski's royal crown, Gdańsk.

Legacy

  • After World War II, a statue of John III Sobieski was "repatriated" to Gdańsk from Lwów (a city now in Ukraine currently named Lviv). The statue overlooks a little park at the old Gdańsk City Hall museum.
  • After the Battle of Vienna, the newly delineated Constellation of Scutum (Latin for shield) was originally named Scutum Sobiescianum by the astronomer Johannes Hevelius, in honor of John III Sobieski. While there are a few stars named after non-astronomers, this is the only constellation named after a real non-astronomer, moreover, one who was still alive when the constellation was named.
  • A legend of the origins of the bagel refers to John III Sobieski as the king to whom a Jewish baker gave the very first bagel in commemoration of his victory at Vienna in 1683. The round shape of the bagel was said to resemble the stirrups of Sobieski and his mounted warriors.
  • The EuroCity train route between Vienna and Warsaw (trains 104/105) are named after Sobieski.
  • A fragrance named Bouquet Sobieski created in 1908 by Polish American perfumer John Blocki[33]
  • There is a modern proposition from non-Polish European newspapers to name the A2 highway in Poland after Sobieski.[34]
  • Sobieski, a vodka brand named after His Majesty John III
  • A cigarette brand owned by British American Tobacco is called Jan III Sobieski

Family

On 5 July 1665, he married the widow of Jan "Sobiepan" Zamoyski, Marie Casimire Louise de la Grange d'Arquien (1641–1716), of Nevers, Burgundy, France. Their children were:

  • Jakub Ludwik Henryk (2 November 1667 – 19 December 1737), Crown Prince of Poland, married Countess Palatine Hedwig Elisabeth of Neuburg and had issue.
  • twin daughters (9 May 1669), stillborn or died shortly after birth.
  • Teresa Teofila (October 1670), was a frail child and failed to survive for more than a month.
  • Adelajda Ludwika (15 October 1672 – 10 February 1677), called "Barbelune", died at the age of four.
  • Maria Teresa (18 October 1673 – 7 December 1675), called "La Mannone", died at the age of two.
  • daughter (October 1674), stillborn or died shortly after birth.
  • Teresa Kunegunda (4 March 1676 – 10 March 1730), married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria and had issue.
  • Aleksander Benedykt (6 September 1677 – 19 November 1714), died unmarried.
  • daughter (13 November 1678), stillborn or died shortly after birth.
  • Konstanty Władysław (1 May 1680 – 28 February 1726), married Maria Józefa Wessel but had no issue.
  • Jan (4 June 1682 – between 1 January and 12 April 1685), died at the age of two.
  • daughter (20 December 1684), stillborn or died shortly after birth.

Sobieski family

  • Anonymous portrait of Jakub Ludwik, painted about 1685.
    Anonymous portrait of Jakub Ludwik, painted about 1685.
  • Anonymous portrait of Teresa Kunegunda, painted at the end of the 17th century.
    Anonymous portrait of Teresa Kunegunda, painted at the end of the 17th century.
  • Portrait of Aleksander Benedykt by the circle of Hyacinthe Rigaud, about 1696.
    Portrait of Aleksander Benedykt by the circle of Hyacinthe Rigaud, about 1696.
  • Portrait of Konstanty Władysław by the circle of Hyacinthe Rigaud, about 1696.
    Portrait of Konstanty Władysław by the circle of Hyacinthe Rigaud, about 1696.
  • Anonymous portrait of Prince Jan (1682–1685), painted about 1683.
    Anonymous portrait of Prince Jan (1682–1685), painted about 1683.
  • Portrait of Maria Klementyna, John III's granddaughter, painted by Pier Leone Ghezzi around 1735.
    Portrait of Maria Klementyna, John III's granddaughter, painted by Pier Leone Ghezzi around 1735.
  • Anonymous portrait of Maria Karolina, John III's granddaughter, painted around 1730.
    Anonymous portrait of Maria Karolina, John III's granddaughter, painted around 1730.
  • Portrait of the Sobieski family by Siemiginowski-Eleuter. Left side: Jakub, Konstanty, Aleksander, Teresa. Right side: Marie Casimire holding Jan (1682–1685).
    Portrait of the Sobieski family by Siemiginowski-Eleuter. Left side: Jakub, Konstanty, Aleksander, Teresa. Right side: Marie Casimire holding Jan (1682–1685).
  • Portrait of the Sobieski family by Henri Gascar. Left side: Konstanty and Jakub (grasping a portrait of John III). Right side: Aleksander, Teresa and Marie Casimire.
    Portrait of the Sobieski family by Henri Gascar. Left side: Konstanty and Jakub (grasping a portrait of John III). Right side: Aleksander, Teresa and Marie Casimire.
  • Portrait of the Sobieski family by Henri Gascar. John III and Marie Casimire are in the middle; Konstanty, Aleksander and Jakub are on the left; Teresa Kunegunda and Hedwig of Neuburg holding her daughter Maria Leopoldyna (1693–1695) are on the right.
    Portrait of the Sobieski family by Henri Gascar. John III and Marie Casimire are in the middle; Konstanty, Aleksander and Jakub are on the left; Teresa Kunegunda and Hedwig of Neuburg holding her daughter Maria Leopoldyna (1693–1695) are on the right.

See also

References

  1. ^ Aleksander Gieysztor (1979). History of Poland. PWN, Polish Scientific Publishers. p. 223. ISBN 83-01-00392-8. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  2. ^ J.A. Hammerton (2007). Peoples of All Nations: Their Life Today And Story Of Their Past. Concept Publishing Company. p. 4142. ISBN 81-7268-144-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  3. ^ Mario Reading (2009). The Complete Prophecies of Nostradamus. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 382. ISBN 1-906787-39-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  4. ^ Ignacy Zagórski, Edward Rastawiecki (baron) (1845). Monety dawnej polski jakoteż prowincyj i miast do niéj niegdy należacych: z trzech ostatnich wieków zebrane (in Polish). S.H. Merzbach. p. 75. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  5. ^ a b c d Wojciech Skalmowski, Tatjana Soldatjenkova, Emmanuel Waegemans (2003). Liber amicorum. Peeters Publishers. p. 165. ISBN 90-429-1298-7. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Red. (Eds.), Jan III Sobieski, p.413
  7. ^ J.B. Morton. Sobieski, King of Poland. pp. 30–31. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  8. ^ Tindal Palmer 1815, p. 5
  9. ^ Daniel Stone (2001). The Polish–Lithuanian state, 1386–1795. University of Washington Press. p. 236. ISBN 0-295-98093-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  10. ^ Tindal Palmer 1815, p. 7
  11. ^ Tindal Palmer 1815, pp. 12–13
  12. ^ Tindal Palmer 1815, p. 20
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Simon Millar, Peter Dennis (2008). Vienna 1683: Christian Europe Repels the Ottomans. Osprey Publishing. p. 17. ISBN 1-84603-231-8. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i Red. (Eds.), Jan III Sobieski, p.414
  15. ^ Tindal Palmer 1815, pp. 23–24
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i Red. (Eds.), Jan III Sobieski, p.415
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i Red. (Eds.), Jan III Sobieski, p.416
  18. ^ a b Frank N. Magill (13 September 2013). The 17th and 18th Centuries: Dictionary of World Biography. Routledge. p. 726. ISBN 978-1-135-92414-0.
  19. ^ Howard N. Lupovitch (16 December 2009). Jews and Judaism in World History. Routledge. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-135-18965-5.
  20. ^ Joseph Cummins. The War Chronicles: From Chariots to Flintlocks. Fair Winds. p. 323. ISBN 978-1-61673-403-9.
  21. ^ F. L. Carsten (1 January 1961). The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 5, The Ascendancy of France, 1648-88. CUP Archive. p. 564. ISBN 978-0-521-04544-5.
  22. ^ a b c d e f Frank N. Magill (13 September 2013). The 17th and 18th Centuries: Dictionary of World Biography. Routledge. p. 727. ISBN 978-1-135-92414-0.
  23. ^ a b Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson. The Cambridge History of Poland. CUP Archive. p. 538. ISBN 978-1-00-128802-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ a b c Wiktor Waintraub (1976). Memoirs of the Polish Baroque: the writings of Jan Chryzostom Pasek, a squire of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania. University of California Press. p. 308. ISBN 0-520-02752-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  25. ^ a b Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson. The Cambridge History of Poland. CUP Archive. p. 542. ISBN 978-1-00-128802-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ a b Mirosław Nagielski (1995). Hetmani Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów (in Polish). Bellona. p. 227. ISBN 83-11-08275-8. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  27. ^ a b c d e f g Red. (Eds.), Jan III Sobieski, p.417
  28. ^ a b Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson. The Cambridge History of Poland. CUP Archive. pp. 543–544. ISBN 978-1-00-128802-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson. The Cambridge History of Poland. CUP Archive. p. 541. ISBN 978-1-00-128802-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson. The Cambridge History of Poland. CUP Archive. pp. 544–545. ISBN 978-1-00-128802-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ World Book, Inc (2007). "Volume 1". The World Book Encyclopedia. Bellona. p. 132. ISBN 0-7166-0107-9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  32. ^ Mizwa, Stephen Paul (1942). Great Men and Women of Poland. New York: Macmillan. p. 103.
  33. ^ http://perfumeintelligence.co.uk, Volume B, Chapter 5
  34. ^ http://www.bankier.pl/wiadomosc/Die-Welt-proponuje-nazwe-dla-autostrady-A2-2565831.html

Bibliography

  • Tindal Palmer, Alicia (1815), Authentic memoirs of John Sobieski, King of Poland, Printed for the author; and sold by Longman and Co
  • Red. (Eds.) (1962–1964). Jan III Sobieski (in Polish). Vol. X. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |work= ignored (help)

Further reading

  • Chełmecki, König J. Sobieski und die Befreiung Wiens (Vienna, 1883)
  • Coyer, Histoire de Jean Sobieski (Amsterdam, 1761 and 1783)
  • Du Hamel de Breuil, Sobieski et sa politique de 1674 à 1683 (Paris, 1894)
  • Dupont, Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de Sobieski (Warsaw, 1885)
  • Rieder, Johann III., König von Polen (Vienna, 1883)
  • Salvandy, Histoire de Pologne avant et sous le roi Jean Sobieski (two volumes, new edition, Paris, 1855)
  • Tatham, John Sobieski (Oxford, 1881)
  • Varvounis, Jan Sobieski: The King Who Saved Europe (2012)
  • Waliszewski, Acta (three volumes, Cracow, 1684)

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to John III of Poland.
John III Sobieski
Born: 17 August 1629 Died: 17 June 1696
Regnal titles
Vacant
Title last held by
Michael I 		King of Poland
Grand Duke of Lithuania
1674–1696 		Vacant
Title next held by
Augustus II
Political offices
Vacant
Title last held by
Stefan Czarniecki 		Field Crown Hetman of Poland
1666–1667 		Succeeded by
Vacant
Title last held by
Stanisław "Rewera" Potocki 		Great Crown Hetman of Poland
1667–1674
Preceded by Great Marshal of the Crown of Poland
1667–1674 		Succeeded by

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