Umayyad campaigns in India: Difference between revisions
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| result = Indian Confederation victory |
| result = Indian Confederation victory |
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| territory = Arab expansion checked and contained to Sindh. |
| territory = Arab expansion checked and contained to Sindh. |
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| combatant1 = [[Brahmin dynasty ]]<br>[[Karkota Dynasty]]<br>[[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty]]<br>[[Chalukyas of Navasarika|Chalukya dynasty]]<br>[[Mori Kingdom]]<br>[[Maitraka dynasty]]<br>[[Saindhava]] |
| combatant1 = [[Brahmin dynasty ]]<br>[[Karkota Dynasty]]<br>[[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty]]<br>[[Chalukyas of Navasarika|Chalukya dynasty]]<br>[[Mori Kingdom]]<br>[[Rashtrakuta Empire]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A.S. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakuta and their Times |date=1934 |publisher=Oriental Books |year=1934 |pages=55 |language=English}}</ref></br>[[Maitraka dynasty]]<br>[[Saindhava]] |
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| combatant2 = [[Umayyad Caliphate]]<br>[[Arab Sind|Vilayet Al-Sindh]] |
| combatant2 = [[Umayyad Caliphate]]<br>[[Arab Sind|Vilayet Al-Sindh]] |
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| commander1 = [[Raja Dahir]]{{KIA}} <br>[[Lalitaditya Muktapida]]<br>[[Nagabhata I]]<br>[[Bappa Rawal]]<br>[[Chalukyas of Navasarika# |
| commander1 = [[Raja Dahir]]{{KIA}} <br>[[Lalitaditya Muktapida]]<br>[[Nagabhata I]]<br>[[Bappa Rawal]]<br>[[Dantidurga]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A.S. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakuta and their Times |date=1934 |publisher=Oriental Books |year=1934 |pages=55 |language=English}}</ref><br>[[Chalukyas of Navasarika#Pulakeshin|Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin]] |
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| commander2 = [[Muhammad bin Qasim]]<br>[[Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]]<br>[[Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi]]<br>[[Al Hakam ibn Awana]]{{KIA}} |
| commander2 = [[Muhammad bin Qasim]]<br>[[Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]]<br>[[Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi]]<br>[[Al Hakam ibn Awana]]{{KIA}} |
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| partof = [[Early Muslim conquests]] and [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]] |
| partof = [[Early Muslim conquests]] and [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]] |
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Revision as of 10:50, 11 July 2024
| Umayyad campaigns in India | |||||||||
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| Part of Early Muslim conquests and Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent | |||||||||
 Sindh and neighbouring kingdoms in 700 AD | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
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Brahmin dynasty Karkota Dynasty Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty Chalukya dynasty Mori Kingdom Rashtrakuta Empire[1] Maitraka dynasty Saindhava |
Umayyad Caliphate Vilayet Al-Sindh | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
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Raja Dahir † Lalitaditya Muktapida Nagabhata I Bappa Rawal Dantidurga[2] Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin |
Muhammad bin Qasim Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi Al Hakam ibn Awana † | ||||||||
The Umayyad Dynasty came to rule the Caliphate in 661 CE, and during the first half of the 8th century CE, a series of battles took place in the Indian subcontinent between armies of the Umayyad Caliphate and Indian kingdoms situated to the east of the Indus river,[3] subsequent to the Arab conquest of Sindh in present-day Pakistan during 711 – 713 CE.
During the Rashidun Caliphate (632 – 661 CE), a few raids were launched in India, but no permanent conquest took place. The second wave of military expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate lasted from 692 to 718 CE. The reign of Al-Walid I (705–715 CE) saw the most dramatic Marwanid Umayyad conquests, in a period of barely ten years, North Africa, Spain, Transoxiana, and Sindh were subdued and colonized by the Arabs.[4] Sindh, ruled by King Raja Dahir of the Rai dynasty, was captured by the Umayyad general Muhammad bin Qasim,[5] which became a second-level province of the Caliphate (iqlim) and a suitable base for excursions into India, but, after bin Qasim's departure in 715 CE most of his captured territories were recaptured by Indian kings.[6]
Yazid II (720 to 724 CE) launched the third Umayyad expansion alongall the warring frontiers, including in India, which resulted in a series of battles between the Arabs and Silluka (725 – 750 CE) of the Pratiharas of Mandavyapura, Nagabhata I of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, Siladitta IV (710-740 CE) of Maitraka dynasty, Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty, and other small Indian kingdoms between 724 and 750 CE. Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri (723 – 726 CE) recaptured Sindh, conquered Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan, however, Arab forces invading Malwa and achieved victory.[7]
The fourth Umayyad campaign was launched after Arabs lost control of Sindh and conquered territories of Rajasthan and Gujarat under Tamim ibn Zayd al-Utbi (726 – 731 CE). Al-Hakam ibn Awana, assisted by Amr, son of Muhammad ibn Qasim, pacified Sindh, established garrison cities of Al Mahfuza and Al Mansura, then campaigned in Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Lalitadyata Muktapida and Yashovarman of Kannauj checked the Arabs in Punjab, although Al-Hakam conquered Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan, the Arabs were decisively defeated at Navsari in 739 CE by Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin, a general of Vikramaditya II.[8] Arabs lost their conquests in Rajasthan and Gujarat by 743 CE. These events took place during the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 691–743 CE), the 10th Umayyad Caliph, which saw a turn in the fortune of the Umayyads which resulted in eventual defeat on all the fronts and a complete halt of Arab expansionism. The hiatus from 740 to 750 CE due to military exhaustion, also saw the advent of the third of a series of civil wars, which resulted in the collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate.[9]
The Arab defeats led to an end of their eastward expansion in India, and later manifested in the overthrow of Arab rulers in Sindh itself and the establishment of indigenous Muslim dynasties (Soomras and Sammas) there.[10]
Background
The first incursion by Arabs in India occurred around 636/7 AD, during the Rashidun Caliphate, long before any Arab army reached the frontier of India by land.[11] Uthman ibn Abi al-As al-Thaqafi, the governor of Bahrain and Oman, had dispatched the naval expeditions against the ports and positions of the Sasanian Empire, and further east to the borders of India.[12] The ports in India raided were Thane (near Mumbai), Bharuch (in Gujarat) and faced success,[13] and Debal (in Sindh).[14] These expeditions were not sanctioned by Caliph Umar and Uthman escaped punishment only because there weren't any casualties.[15]
The motivation for these expeditions may have been to seek plunder or to attack pirates to safeguard Arabian trade in the Arabian Sea, not to start the conquest of India.[16] Arabs led by Suhail b. Abdi and Hakam al Taghilbi later defeated a Sindhi army in the Battle of Rasil in 644 beside the Indian Ocean sea coast, then reached the Indus River.[17] Caliph Umar ibn Al-Khattab denied them permission to cross the river or operate in Makran and the Arabs returned home.[18]
Campaign by Muhammad bin Qasim (712–715)
Muhammad bin Qasim, after his conquest of Sindh, wrote to `the kings of Hind' calling upon them to surrender and accept the faith of Islam.[19] He dispatched a force against al-Baylaman (Bhinmal), which is said to have offered submission. The Mid people of Surast (Maitrakas of Vallabhi) also made peace.[20] Bin Qasim then sent a detachment of 10,000 cavalry to Kanauj along with a decree from the Caliph. He himself went with an army to the prevailing frontier of Kashmir called panj-māhīyāt (in west Punjab).[21] Although Arabs were successful in the Kanauj expedition.[22] The frontier of Kashmir might be what is referred to as al-Kiraj in later records (Kira kingdom in Kangra Valley, Himachal Pradesh[23]), which was apparently subdued.[24]
Bin Qasim was recalled in 715 CE and died en route. Al-Baladhuri writes that, upon his departure, the kings of al-Hind had come back to their kingdoms. The period of Caliph Umar II (r. 717–720) was relatively peaceful. Umar invited the kings of "al-Hind" to convert to Islam and become his subjects, in return for which they would continue to remain kings. Hullishah of Sindh and other kings accepted the offer and adopted Arab names.[25]
Campaign by Al Junayd (723–726)
During the caliphates of Yazid II (r. 720–724) and Hisham (r. 724–743), the expansion policy was resumed. Junayd ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Murri (or Al Junayd) was appointed the governor of Sindh in 723 CE.
After subduing Sindh, Junayd sent campaigns to various parts of India. The justification was that these parts had previously paid tribute to Bin Qasim but then stopped. The first target was al-Kiraj (possibly Kangra valley), whose conquest effectively put an end to the kingdom. A large campaign was carried out in Rajasthan which included Mermad (Maru-Mada, in Jaisalmer and north Jodhpur), al-Baylaman (Bhillamala or Bhinmal) and Jurz (Gurjara country—southern Rajasthan and northern Gujarat). Another force was sent against Uzayn (Ujjain), which made incursions into its country (Avanti) and some parts of it were destroyed (the city of Baharimad, unidentified). Ujjain itself was not conquered. A separate force was also sent against al-Malibah (Malwa, to the east of Ujjain[26]), The Arabs tried to extend Muslim dominion over interior parts of India. They conquered most of the Western India and conquered Bhinmal, Juzr , Marmad, Mandal, Dahnaz, Burwas and Malibah[27].This means the boundaries of the new province would have included western and southern Rajasthan, nearly all of Gujarat, and a small part of Madhya Pradesh.[28]
Towards the North, Umayyads attempted to expand into Punjab but were defeated by Lalitaditya Muktapida of Kashmir.[29] Another force was dispatched south. It subdued Qassa (Kutch), al-Mandal (perhaps Okha), Dahnaj (unidentified), Surast (Saurashtra) and Barus or Barwas (Bharuch).[30]
The kingdoms weakened or destroyed included the Bhattis of Jaisalmer, the Gurjaras of Bhinmal, the Mauryas of Chittor, the Guhilots of Mewar, the Kacchelas of Kutch, the Maitrakas of Saurashtra and Gurjaras of Nandipuri. Altogether, Al-Junayd have conquered all of Gujarat, a large part of Rajasthan, and some parts of Madhya Pradesh. Blankinship states that this was a full-scale invasion carried out with the intent of founding a new province of the Caliphate.[31]
In 726 CE, the Caliphate replaced Al-Junayd by Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi (Tamim) as the governor of Sindh. During the next few years, all of the gains made by Junayd were lost. The Arab records do not explain why, except to state that the Caliphate troops, drawn from distant lands such as Syria and Yemen, abandoned their posts in India and refused to go back. Blankinship admits the possibility that the Indians must have revolted, but thinks it more likely that the problems were internal to the Arab forces.[32]
Governor Tamim is said to have fled Sindh and died en route. The Caliphate appointed al-Hakam ibn Awana al-Kalbi (Al-Hakam) in 731 who governed till 740.
Al-Hakam and Indian resistance (731–740)
Al-Hakam restored order to Sindh and Kutch and built secure fortifications at Al-Mahfuzah and Al-Mansur. He then proceeded to retake Indian kingdoms previously conquered by Al-Junayd. The Arab sources are silent on the details of the campaigns. However, several Indian sources record victories over the Arab forces.[33]
The king of Nandipuri, Jayabhata IV, documented, in an inscription dated to 736 CE, that he went to the aid of the king of Vallabhi and inflicted a crushing defeat on a Tājika (Arab) army. The Arabs then overran the kingdom of Jayabhata himself and proceeded on to Navsari in southern Gujarat.[34] The Arab intention might have been to make inroads into South India. However, to the south of the Mahi River lay the powerful Chalukyan empire. In the Battle of Navsari, the Chalukyan viceroy Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin decisively defeated the invading Arab forces as documented in a Navsari grant of 739 CE. The Tājika (Arab) army defeated was, according to the grant, one that had attacked "Kacchella, Saindhava, Saurashtra, Cavotaka, Maurya and Gurjara" kings. Pulakeshin subsequently received the titles "Solid Pillar of Deccan" (Dakshināpatha-sādhāra) and the "Repeller of the Unrepellable" (Anivartaka-nivartayitr). The Rashtrakuta prince Dantidurga, who was subsidiary to Chalukyas at this time, also played an important role in the battle.[35]
The kingdoms recorded in the Navsari grant are interpreted as follows: Kacchelas were the people of Kutch. The Saindhavas are thought to have been emigrants from Sindh, who presumably moved to Kathiawar after the Arab occupation of Sindh in 712 CE. Settling down in the northern tip of Kathiawar, they had a ruler by the name of Pushyadeva. The Cavotakas (also called Capotaka or Capa) were also associated with Kathiawar, with their capital at Anahilapataka. Saurashtra is south Kathiawar. The Mauryas and Gurjaras are open to interpretation. Blankinship takes them to be the Mauryas of Chittor and Gurjaras of Bhinmal whereas Baij Nath Puri takes them to be a subsidiary line of Mauryas based in Vallabhi and the Gurjaras of Bharuch under Jayabhata IV. In Puri's interpretation, this invasion of the Arab forces was limited to the southern parts of modern Gujarat with several small kingdoms, which was halted by the Chalukyan empire.[36]
Indications are that Al-Hakam was overstretched. An appeal for reinforcements from the Caliphate in 737 is recorded, with men being sent, a surprisingly small 3000 contingent. Even this force was absorbed in its passage through Iraq for quelling a local rebellion.[37] The defeat at the hands of Chalukyas is believed to have been a blow to the Arab forces with large costs in men and arms.[37]
The weakened Arab forces were driven out by the subsidiaries of the erstwhile kings. The Guhilot prince Bappa Rawal (r. 734–753) drove out the Arabs who had put an end to the Maurya dynasty at Chittor.[38] A Jain prabandha mentions a king Nahada, who is said to have been the first ruler of his family at Jalore, near Bhinmal, and who came into conflict with a Muslim ruler whom he defeated.[39] Nahada is identified with Nagabhata I (r. 730–760), the founder of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, which is believed to have started from the Jalore-Bhinmal area and spread to Avanti at Ujjain.[40] The Gwalior inscription of the king Bhoja I, says that Nagabhata, the founder of the dynasty, defeated a powerful army of Valacha Mlecchas (foreigners called "Baluchs"[41]) around 725 CE.[42] Even though many historians believe that Nagabhata repulsed Arab forces at Ujjain, there is no authentic information about where precisely he encountered them.
Baij Nath Puri states that the Arab campaigns to the east of Indus proved ineffective. However, they had the unintended effect of integrating the Indian kingdoms in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Chalukyas extended their empire to the north after fighting off the Arabs successfully. Nagabhata I secured a firm position and laid the foundation for a new dynasty, which would rise to become the principal deterrent against Arab expansion.[43] Blankinship also notes that Hakam's campaigns caused the creation of larger, more powerful kingdoms, which was inimical to the caliphate's interests.[44] Al-Hakam died in battle in 740 CE while fighting the Meds of north Saurashtra (Maitrakas, probably under the control of Chalukyas at this time).[45]
Aftermath
The death of Al-Hakam effectively ended the Arab presence to the east of Sindh. In the following years, the Arabs were preoccupied with controlling Sindh. They made occasional raids to the seaports of Kathiawar to protect their trading routes but did not venture inland into Indian kingdoms.[46] Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta chief of Berar turned against his Chalukya overlords in 753 and became independent. The Gurjara-Pratiharas immediately to his north became his foes and the Arabs became his allies, due to the geographic logic as well as the economic interests of sea trade. The Pratiharas extended their influence throughout Gujarat and Rajasthan almost to the edge of the Indus river, but their push to become the central power of north India was repeatedly thwarted by the Rashtrakutas. This uneasy balance of power between the three powers lasted till the end of the caliphate.[citation needed]
Later in 776 CE, a naval expedition by the Arabs was defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet under Agguka I.[47][48]
List of major battles
The table below lists some of the major military conflicts during the Arab expeditions in Gujarat and Rajasthan.[49]
| Arab victory | Indian victory |
| Year | Aggressor | Location | Commander | Details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 713 | Arab | Sindh and Multan | Muhammad ibn Qasim | Arab conquest of urban Sindh completed[49] |
| 715 | Indian | Alor | Hullishah, al-Muhallab | Indian army retakes major city from Arabs.[49] |
| 715 | Indian | Mehran | Hullishah, al-Muhallab | Arabs stall the Indian counter-offensive[49] |
| 718 | Indian | Brahmanabadh | Hullishah, al-Muhallab | Indian attacks resume[49] |
| 721 | Arab | Brahmanabadh | al-Muhallab, Hullishah | Hullishah becomes a Muslim, likely due to military reversals.[49] |
| 724–740 | Arab | Uzain, Mirmad, Dahnaj, others | Junayd of Sindh | Raiding India as part of Umayyad policy in India.[49] |
| 724-743 | Arab | Punjab | Junayd,Lalitaditya muktapida | Arab army destroyed[29] |
| 725 | Arab | Avanti | Junayd, Nagabhata I | Defeat of large Arab expedition against Avanti.[49] |
| 735-36 | Arab | Vallabhi, Nandipuri, Bharuch | Junayd, Pushyadeva, Siladitya IV, Jayabhata IV | Maitraka capital sacked in Arab raid. Arabs defeated Kachchelas (of Kutch), Saindhavas, Surastra (Maitrakas), Chavotkata (Chavdas), Mauryas and Gurjaras of Lata.[49][50] |
| 738-39 | India | Navsari | Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin | Arabs were defeated by Chalukya forces in the Battle of navsari. |
| 740 | Arab | Chittor | Maurya of Chittor | Indians repulse an Arab siege.[49] |
| 743? | Arab | al-Bailaman, al-Jurz | Junayd | Annexed by Arabs.[49] |
| 750 | Arab | Vallabhi | Maitraka capital sacked in Arab Raid |
See also
- Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
- List of early Hindu Muslim military conflicts in the Indian subcontinent
Notes
References
- ^ Altekar, A.S. (1934). Rashtrakuta and their Times. Oriental Books. p. 55.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Altekar, A.S. (1934). Rashtrakuta and their Times. Oriental Books. p. 55.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Crawford, Peter (2013). The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam. Barnsley, Great Britain: Pen & Sword Books. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-84884-612-8.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 29.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 30.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, pp. 19, 41.
- ^ Balocu, Nabī Bak̲h̲shu K̲h̲ānu (1995). Lands of Pakistan: Perspectives, Historical and Cultural. el-Mashriqi Foundation. p. 48.
- ^ Majumdar 1977, p. 279.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 19.
- ^ Siddiqui, Habibullah. "The Soomras of Sindh: their origin, main characteristics and rule – an overview (general survey) (1025 – 1351 AD)" (PDF). Literary Conference on Soomra Period in Sindh.
- ^ Wink 2002, p. 201
- ^ Hoyland 2015, p. 85.
- ^ Proceedings and Transactions of the ... All-India Oriental Conference. Bihar and Orissa Research Society. 1947. p. 551.
- ^ El Hareir & M'Baye 2011, pp. 594, 601–602
- ^ al-Balādhurī 1924, p. 209: "'Uthmân ibn-abu-l-'Âși ath-Thaķafi ... sent his brother, al-Hakam, to al-Bahrain, and went himself to 'Umân, and sent an army across to Tânah. When the army returned, he wrote to 'Umar, informing him of this expedition and its result. 'Umar wrote to him in reply, ' ... By Allah, I swear that if they had been smitten, I would exact from thy tribe the equivalent.' Al-Hakam sent an expedition against Barwaș [Broach] also, and sent his brother, al-Mughîrah ibn-abu-l-'Âsi, to the gulf of ad-Daibul, where he met the enemy in battle and won a victory."
- ^ Sen 1999, p. 346
- ^ Wink 2002, p. 129
- ^ Crawford 2014, p. 192
- ^ Wink 2002, p. 206: "And Al-Qasim wrote letters `to the kings of Hind (bi-mulūk-i-hind) calling upon them all to surrender and accept the faith of Islam (bi-muṭāwa`at-o-islām)'. A detachment of Ten thousand-strong cavalry were sent to Kannauj from Multan, with a decree of the caliph, inviting the people `to share in the blessings of Islam, to submit and do homage and pay tribute'."
- ^ Al-Baladhuri 1924, p. 223.
- ^ Wink 2002, p. 206.
- ^ Tandle, Dr Sanjeevkumar. INDIAN HISTORY. Lulu.com. p. 271. ISBN 978-1-312-37211-5.
- ^ Tripathi 1989, p. 218.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 132.
- ^ Wink 2002, p. 207.
- ^ Jain, Kailash Chand (1972). Malwa through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D. Motilal Banarsidas. p. 10. ISBN 9788120808249.
- ^ Jain, Kailash Chand (31 December 1972). Malwa Through The Ages. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 321. ISBN 978-81-208-0824-9.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 133.
- ^ a b Hasan, Mohibbul (1959). Kashmir Under the Sultans. Delhi: Aakar Books. p. 30.
In the reign of Caliph Hisham (724–43) the Arabs of Sindh under their energetic and ambitious governor Junaid again threatened Kashmir. But Lalitaditya (724–60), who was the ruler of Kashmir at this time, defeated him and overran his kingdom. His victory was, however, not decisive for the Arab aggression did not cease. That is why the Kashmiri ruler, pressed by them from the south and by the Turkish tribes and the Tibetans from the north, had to invoke the help of the Chinese emperor and to place himself under his protection. But, although he did not receive any aid, he was able to stem the tide of Arab advance by his own efforts.
- ^ Bhandarkar 1929, pp. 29–30; Wink 2002, p. 208; Blankinship 1994, pp. 132–133
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 133-134.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, pp. 147–148.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 187.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 187; Puri 1986, p. 44; Chattopadhyaya 1998, p. 32
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 186; Bhandarkar 1929, pp. 29–30; Majumdar 1977, pp. 266–267; Puri 1986, p. 45; Wink 2002, p. 208; Sailendra Nath Sen 1999, p. 348; Chattopadhyaya 1998, pp. 33–34
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 187; Puri 1986, pp. 45–46
- ^ a b Blankinship 1994, p. 188.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 188; Sailendra Nath Sen 1999, pp. 336–337
- ^ Sanjay Sharma 2006, p. 204.
- ^ Sanjay Sharma 2006, p. 187.
- ^ Bhandarkar 1929, p. 30.
- ^ Bhandarkar 1929, pp. 30–31; Rāya 1939, p. 125; Majumdar 1977, p. 267; Puri 1986, p. 46; Wink 2002, p. 208
- ^ Puri 1986, p. 46.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, pp. 189–190.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 189.
- ^ Blankinship 1994, pp. 203–204.
- ^ Kumar, Amit (2012). "Maritime History of India: An Overview". Maritime Affairs:Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India. 8 (1): 93–115. doi:10.1080/09733159.2012.690562. S2CID 108648910.
In 776 AD, Arabs tried to invade Sind again but were defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet. A Saindhava inscription provides information about these naval actions.
- ^ Sailendra Nath Sen 1999, pp. 343–344
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Richards, J.F. (1974). "The Islamic frontier in the east: Expansion into South Asia". Journal of South Asian Studies. 4 (1): 91–109. doi:10.1080/00856407408730690.
- ^ Virji 1955, p. 94–96.
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- al-Balādhurī (1924). The Origins of the Islamic State. Vol. Part II. Translated by Murgotten, Francis Clark. New York: Columbia University. OCLC 6396175.
- Baloch, Nabi Bakhsh Khan (1953). "Muhammad ibn al-Qasim: A Study of His Family Background and Personality". Islamic Culture. 1927 (4): 242–271.
- Baloch, Nabi Bakhsh Khan (1946). "The Probable Date of the First Arab Expeditions to India". Islamic Culture. 20 (3): 250–266.
- Bhandarkar, D. R. (1929). "Indian Studies No. I: Slow Progress of Islam Power in Ancient India". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 10 (1/2): 25–44. JSTOR 41682407.
- Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1827-7.
- Chattopadhyaya, B. D. (1998), Representing the Other? Sanskrit Sources and the Muslims, New Delhi: Manohar, ISBN 978-8173042522
- Crawford, Peter (2014). The War of The Three Gods: Romans, Persians, and the Rise of Islam. Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-62914-512-9.
- El Hareir, Idris; M'Baye, Ravene, eds. (2011). The Spread of Islam Throughout the World (PDF). The Different Aspects of Islamic Culture. Vol. Three. UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-104153-2.
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- Ishaq, Mohammad (1945). "A Peep Into the First Arab Expeditions to India under the Companions of the Prophet". Islamic Culture. 19 (2): 109–114.
- Khushalani, Gobind (2006). Chachnama Retold: An Account of the Arab Conquests of Sindh. Promilla & Co. ISBN 81-85002-68-1.
- Majumdar, R. C. (1977). Ancient India (Eighth ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0436-4.
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- Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
- Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilisation (Second ed.). New Delhi: New Age International Publishers. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
- Sharma, Sanjay (2006). "Negotiating Identity and Status Legitimation and Patronage under the Gurjara-Pratīhāras of Kanauj". Studies in History. 22 (22): 181–220. doi:10.1177/025764300602200202. S2CID 144128358.
- Tripathi, Rama Shankar (1989), History of Kanauj: To the Moslem Conquest, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0404-3
- Virji, Krishnakumari Jethabhai (1955). Ancient history of Saurashtra: being a study of the Maitrakas of Valabhi V to VIII centuries A. D. Indian History and Culture Series. Konkan Institute of Arts and Sciences.
- Wink, André (2002) [first published 1996], Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World (Third ed.), Brill, ISBN 978-0391041738
Further reading
- Atherton, Cynthia Packert (1997). The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004107892.
- Bose, Mainak Kumar (1988). Late classical India. Calcutta: A. Mukherjee & Co. OL 1830998M.
- O'Brien, Anthony Gordon (1996). The Ancient Chronology of Thar: The Bhattika, Laulika and Sindh Eras. Oxford University Press India. ISBN 978-1582559308.
