Hunting

This article is about the hunting of prey by human society. For other uses, see Hunting (disambiguation).

"Hunter" redirects here. For other uses, see Hunter (disambiguation).

Boar hunting, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (14th century)

Hunting is the practice of pursuing animals for food, recreation, trade or for their resources. In modern use, the term refers to regulated and legal hunting, as distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of animals contrary to law. Hunted animals are referred to as game animals, and are usually large, or small mammals, migratory gamebirds, or non-migratory gamebirds such as Bobwhite Quail.

By definition, hunting strictly speaking, excludes the killing - though similar techniques may be used - of individual protected animals, such as bears which have become dangerous to humans, as well as the killing of non-game animals, domestic animals, or vermin as a means of pest control. Hunting can be a necessary component of modern wildlife management, for example to help maintain a population of healthy animals within an environment's ecological carrying capacity when natural checks such as predators are absent. In the United States, wildlife managers are frequently part of hunting regulatory and licensing bodies, where they help to set rules on the number, manner and conditions in which game may be selected for harvesting.

The pursuit, capture and release, or capture to eat of fish is called fishing, which is not commonly categorized as a kind of hunting, although many hunters may also fish. Trapping is also usually considered a separate activity. Neither is it considered hunting to pursue animals without intent to take them, as in wildlife photography or birdwatching. The practice of hunting for plants or mushrooms is a colloquial term for gathering.

History

Ancient roots

Artemis as huntress.

Hunting has an extremely long history and may well pre-date the rise of species Homo sapiens. While our earliest primate ancestors were probably insectivores, there is evidence that we have used larger animals for subsistence for up to 1.8 million years and that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to replacement of holocene megafauna by smaller herbivores however the North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.

Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of animals and the dawn of agriculture. There is fossil evidence for spear use in Asian hunting dating from approximately 16,200 years ago.

With the establishment of language and culture, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as proverbs, aphorisms, adages and metaphors which continue even today.

Many species of animals have been hunted and caribou/wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting."

Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread, hunting was usually a significant contributor to the human food supply, even after the development of agriculture. The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included protein (literally "the most important") food, bone for implements, sinew for cordage, fur and feathers for ornament, with rawhide and leather also used in clothing and shelter. The earliest hunting tools would have included rocks, spears, the atlatl, bow and arrows.

On Ancient reliefs, especially from Mesopotamia, kings are often depicted as hunters on big game such as lions, specially from a war chariot, another virile status symbol; perhaps the archetype is the legendary biblical Nimrod (king). The cultural and psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the horned god Cernunnos, or lunar goddesses of classical antiquity, Greek Artemis or Roman Diana. Taboos are often related to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a 'reserve' surrounding a temple. Euripides' tale of Artemis and Acteon, for example, may be seen as a caution against disrespect of prey or impudent boasting.

Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for pastoral uses or agriculture. Inuit peoples in the Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing, and produce complicated parkas consisting of up to 60 stitched pieces capable of withstanding sub-zero temperatures. From the skins of sea mammals they may make water-proof kayaks, clothing, gloves and footwear.

With domestication of the dog, birds of prey and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided hunting developed including venery (scent hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight hound hunting), falconry and ferreting. These are all associated with medieval hunting; in time various dog breeds were selected for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as pointer and setter.

Hunting in pastoral and agricultural societies

Ladies Hunting. Costumes of the fifteenth century. From a miniature in a ms. copy of Ovid's Epistles. No 7231 bis. Bibl. nat^le de Paris.

Even as agriculture and animal husbandry become more prevalent, hunting often remains a part of human cultures where the environment and social conditions allow. Hunting may be used to kill animals who prey upon domestic animals or to extirpate native animals seen as competition for resources such as water or forage.

As hunting moved from a subsistence activity to a social one, two trends emerged. One was that of the specialist hunter: rather than a general masculine task, hunting became one of many trades pursued by those with special training and equipment. The other was the emergence of hunting as a sport for those of a higher social class. Here in middle English the word "game" finds its meaning extended from a sport to an animal which is hunted.

As game became more of a luxury than a necessity, the stylized pursuit of it also became a luxury. Dangerous hunting, as for lions or wild boars, usually on horseback (or from a chariot, as in Pharaonic Egypt and Mesopotamia) also had function similar to tournaments and manly sports: an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime to help the aristocracy practice skills of war in times of peace.

Nobleman in Hunting Costume, preceded by his Servant, trying to find the Scent of a Stag. From a manuscript of the 14th century.

In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper-class (aristocracy and higher clergy) obtained as proud privilege the sole rights to hunt (and sometimes fish) in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was certainly used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen; but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer".

Hunting played an important role in the culture of the antebellum South. In most southern states, members of the slaveowning elite attempted to mimic the English aristocracy by imposing a variety of hunting laws and, in a few cases, by creating private game reserves. In general, these efforts failed due to the determined efforts of slaves and poor whites to hunt. Consequently, beginning in the early 19th century, members of the elite began importing the idea of "sport" from England. This allowed them to construct a cultural difference between their approach to hunting, which focused on pursuit and the thrill of the chase, and the hunting methods used by poor whites and slaves, which focused on the acquisition of skins, hides, and fresh meat.

Hunting with dogs

Hunting dogs, with pheasants

Although various animals have been used to aid the hunter, none has been as important as the dog. The domestication of the dog has led to a symbiotic relationship in which the dog has lost its evolutionary independence and provided aid in hunting to man in exchange for support. The modern hunting dog represents the combined efforts of generations of mankind in a way that is probably unparalleled.

The use of dogs in hunting represents a collaboration of persons over time which reaches back to the dawn of our species. Their evolution through selective breeding from wolves which hunted for themselves to the pointer and other hunting dogs which find, identify and retrieve prey entirely in service to man is extraordinary.

The very word for hunting in Ancient Greek, kynègia, is derived from kynos 'dog'. In the Ottoman empire some 33-34 of the 196 orta (companies, none under a hundred men) of the elite force of Janissaries were Sekban, i.e. dog guards, destined in peace time for the ruler's beloved (dog) hunting pastime.

Dogs today are used to find, chase and retrieve game and sometimes to kill it. Hunting dogs allow man, with his less acute senses of smell and hearing, to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt.

Modern sport hunting

In time, this aristocratic type of hunting came to be seen as a sporting activity. Ultimately, the rising middle class or bourgeoisie adopted the practice and retained its image.

Although skilled recreational hunters may choose to become more selective hunters in attempts at taking a mature animal, many people hunt not only for the hunt but also to enjoy the outdoors. Many enjoy the bounty it provides as an alternative to store bought (domesticated) meat.

The advent of recreational hunting spurred the advent of the modern environmental conservation movement. Hunters such as Aldo Leopold, John Muir, and Teddy Roosevelt, moved by a loss of land, which they had become attached to through hunting, became the founding fathers of the modern Conservation movement.

Hunting and religion

Since prehistory, the importance of hunting for most cultures was reflected in their religions. For example, many old (often zoomorph) deities are either predators or prey of man. In pagan religions, specific rituals may be present before and after a hunt, the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place.

Often a hunting ground, or the hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult.

Indian religions

The first Precept of Buddhism is the respect for all sentient life. The general approach to all Buddhist is to avoid killing any living creatures. The Buddha explained the issue by saying "all fear death; comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to kill". The Hindu doctrine of Ahimsa is generally antagonistic to hunting. Jainism teaches to have tremendous respect for all of life. Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are the fundamental conditions for being a Jain.

Christianity and Judaism

From early Christian times, hunting, in one form or another has been forbidden to Roman Catholic Church clerics. Thus the "Corpus Juris Canonici" (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) we sais "We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons." The Fourth Council of the Lateran, held under Pope Innocent III, decreed (canon xv): "We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics." The decree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly: "Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking" (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy (clamorosa) hunting unlawful but not quiet (quieta) hunting.

Ferraris (s.v. "Clericus", art. 6) gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or honest recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however (De episc., l. IV, c. xix), thinks that the interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the Church.

Nevertheless, although the distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by synods at Milan, Avignon, Liège, Cologne and elsewhere. Benedict XIV (De synodo diœces., l. II, c. x) declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to the ecclesiastical law. In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether.

It is important to note that the Bible places no such restrictions on any Christian; however, the animal must be properly drained of blood before consuming. Hence, Protestant clerics, Catholic lay parishioners, and Protestants all in general have no religious restrictions on hunting, individually not being bound by Roman Catholic Church edicts on hunting pertaining solely to Catholic clerics. This is in accord with what is found in the Bible book of Acts chapter 15, verses 28 and 29, specifically, "For the holy spirit and we ourselves have favored adding no further burden to you, except these necessary things, to keep abstaining from things sacrificed to idols and from blood and from things strangled and from fornication. If you carefully keep yourselves from these things, you will prosper. Good health to you!"

Jewish hunting law, based on the Torah, is similar, permitting hunting of non-prey animals that are additionally considered Kosher for food, although hunting preying animals for food is strictly prohibited under Rabbinic law. Hence, birds of prey are specifically prohibited, being non-Kosher.

National hunting traditions

Shikar (India)

During the feudal and colonial epoch on the Indian continent, hunting was a true 'regal sport' in the numerous princely states, as many (Maha)rajas, Nawabs, as well as British officers maintained a whole corps, attached to their court, of shikaris, i.e. native professional hunters. Since these had to be armed (not unlike the common lancer units; both could be mounted), they might also double as a supplementary police corps or military contingent; they would be headed by a master of the hunt, who might be styled Mir-shikar. Often these were recruited from the normally low-ranking local tribes (e.g. pre-Aryan Bhils in Rajasthan's premier kingdom Mewar), because of their traditional knowledge of environment and hunting techniques, but thus could be closer than most subjects to the ruler, who would often hunt big game (preferably the emperor of Asians wildlife, the (Bengal) tiger) in majestic style: on the back of an elephant, often commandeering extra helpers as drivers to scare the game out of the grass or jungle till it came within gun reach. As hunting was an important princely pass-time, worthy hunting lodges were constructed (as in feudal Europe).

After European guests of these princes had enjoyed the honor of taking part in these elephant hunts, some colonial Sahibs started organizing their own, and tiger numbers especially dwindled alarmingly. Later, independent republics and neighbouring Himalayan monarchies (as Nepal) acted to curb such massively disturbing 'expeditions', for conservation, although the threat of extirpation, and of extinction by poaching remains real for many species and habitats. Indian social norms are generally antagonistic to hunting, while a few sects like the Bishnoi lay special emphasis on the conservation of particular species like the antelope. India's Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the Chief Wildlife Warden may, if he is satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life (such as any tigers that become habitually man-eating) or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such animal or cause animal to be hunted. In such a case, the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property.

Safari

In 1977 Kenya chose to ban all hunting in favor of other tourism.

A safari (from Swahili word meaning a long journey) is an overland journey (especially in Africa).

Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by US author Ernest Hemingway and president Theodore Roosevelt. It is a several days or even weeks-lasting journey and camping in the bush or jungle, while pursuing big game. Nowadays, it's often used to describe tours through African national parks to watch or hunt wildlife.

Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by (licensed and highly regulated) professional hunter ("PH"), local guides, skinners and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type is the solo-safari where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation and outfitting is done by the hunter himself. Among trophy hunters, those who outfitted the safaris themselves would receive the greatest admiration.

On the rise, even before integral ecotourism was, is the animal-friendly version known as photo-safari, where the only shots aimed at wildlife come from camera lenses. The synonym Bloodless hunt for hunting with the use of film and a still photo camera was first used by the Polish photographer Włodzimierz Puchalski.

United Kingdom

Different hunting cultures in 1850s England.

See also: Hunting in the United Kingdom

Fox hunting is recognisably the type of hunting which is most associated with the United Kingdom. Originally a form of vermin control to protect livestock, it became a popular social activity for newly wealthy upper classes in Victorian times, and a traditional rural activity for riders and foot followers alike. The complicated rituals of the fox hunt are addressed in the article fox hunting.

Similar to fox hunting in many ways is the chasing of hare with hounds. Sight hounds such as greyhounds may be used to run down hare in coursing with scent hounds such as beagles used for beagling, the hunting of hares on foot. Other sorts of foxhounds may also be used for hunting deer or mink.

These forms of hunting have been controversial in the UK. Animal welfare supporters believe that hunting involved the causing of unnecessary suffering to foxes (and to a lesser extent horses and hounds), whilst proponents argue that it is both culturally and economically important. Using dogs to chase wild mammals in this way was made illegal in February 2005 by the Hunting Act 2004. The issues involved are addressed in the article fox hunting legislation.

Hunting deer by foot without hounds is called game stalking.

The open season for grouse famously begins on August 12, the so-called Glorious Twelfth. The definition of game in the United Kingdom is governed by the Game Act 1831.

The British Shooting Tradition

The shooting of game birds, especially pheasants is a widespread sport in the UK, with the British Association for Shooting and Conservation saying that over a million people per year participate in shooting, though this figure includes game shooting, clay shooting and target shooting. Shooting, as opposed to traditional hunting, requires little questing for game - around 35 million birds are released onto shooting estates every year, some having been intensively reared. Shoots can be elaborate affairs with guns placed in assigned positions with assistants to help load shotguns. When in position, "beaters" move through the areas of cover swinging sticks or flags to drive the game out. Such events are often called "drives".

United States

Hunter with a bear's head strapped to his back on the Kodiak Archipelago.

North American hunting predates the United States by thousands of years, and was an important part of many pre-Columbian Native American cultures. (Today, Native Americans retain some hunting rights and are exempt from some laws as part of Indian treaties and otherwise under federal law—examples include eagle feather laws and exemptions in the Marine Mammal Protection Act. This is particularly important in Alaska Native communities).

Regulation of hunting is primarily performed by the state law; additional regulations are imposed through United States environmental law in the case of migratory birds (such as ducks and geese) and endangered species.

Regulations vary widely from state to state, and govern the areas, time periods, techniques and methods by which specific game animals may be harvested. Some states make a distinction between protected species and unprotected species (often vermin or varmints) for which there are no hunting regulations. Hunters of protected species require a hunting license in all states, for which completion of a hunting safety course is sometimes a prerequisite.

Typically game animals are divided into several categories for regulatory purposes. Typical categories, along with example species, are as follows:

• Big game: White-tailed deer, Mule Deer, moose, elk, reindeer (caribou), bear, bighorn sheep, as well as exotic species often found in canned hunts
• Small Game: cottontail rabbit, eastern gray squirrel
• Furbearers: red fox, mink
• Predators: Cougar (mountain lion/panther), coyote
• Upland game bird: grouse, chukar, pheasant, Bobwhite Quail, dove
• Waterfowl: duck, Canada goose

Hunting big game typically requires a "tag" for each animal harvested. Tags must be purchased in addition to the hunting license, and the number of tags issued to an individual is typically limited. In cases where there are more prospective hunters than the quota for that species, tags are usually assigned by lottery. Tags may be further restricted to a specific area or "wildlife management unit." Hunting migratory waterfowl requires a "duck stamp" from the Fish and Wildlife Service, which is similar in concept to a tag.

Harvest of animals other than big game is typically restricted by a "bag limit" and a "possession limit." A bag limit is a maximum number of a specific animal species that an individual can harvest in a single day. A possession limit is a maximum number of a specific animal species that can be in an individual's possession at any time.

Guns used in hunting are also typically regulated by game category, area within the state, and time period. Regulations for big game hunting often specify a minimum caliber or muzzle energy for firearms. The use of rifles is often banned for safety reasons in areas with high population density or limited topographic relief. Specific seasons for bow hunting or muzzle-loading black powder guns are often established to limit competition with hunters using more effective firearms.

Hunting in the United States is not associated with any particular class or culture. In fact, 78% of Americans support legal hunting, but relatively few Americans actually hunt. At the beginning of the 21st century, 6% of Americans hunted. Southerners in states along the eastern seaboard hunted at a rate slightly below the national average (5%), and while hunting was more common in other parts of the South (9%), these rates did not surpass those of the Plains states, where 12% of Midwesterners hunted. Hunting in other areas of the country fell below the national average. Overall in the 1996–2006 period, the number of hunters over the age of 16 declined by 10%, a drop attributable to a number of factors including habitat loss and changes in recreation habits.

Current regulation of hunting within the United States goes back to the 19th century. Some modern hunters see themselves as conservationists and sportsmen in the mode of Theodore Roosevelt and the Boone and Crockett Club. Local hunting clubs and national organizations provide hunter education and help protect the future of the sport by buying land to set aside. Some groups are for hunters generally and some groups represent a certain hunting interest, such as Ducks Unlimited and Delta Waterfowl. Many hunting groups also participate in lobbying the federal government and state government.

"En uheldig bjørnejakt" (An Unfortunate Bear Hunt) by Theodor Kittelsen.

Each year, nearly $200 million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to state agencies to support wildlife management programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Since 1934 the sale of Federal Duck Stamps, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters over 16 years old, has raised over $700 million to help purchase more than 5.2 million acres (8,100 sq mi/20,000 km²) of habitat for the National Wildlife Refuge System lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species, and are often open to hunting. States also collect monies from hunting licenses to assist with management of game animals, as designated by law. A key task of Federal and state park rangers and game wardens is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting, including species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans.

Varmint hunting is an American phrase for the selective killing of non-game animals seen as pests. While not always an efficient form of pest control (poisoning and trapping are sometimes more effective, although often are not selective enough to prevent poisoning livestock or trapping of, say, skunks unintentionally), varmint hunting does achieve selective control of pests while providing recreation and is much less regulated. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Some animals (such as wild rabbits or squirrels) may be utilized for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are "varmints" depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, and feral hogs. In some parts of Africa, wild elephants are considered varmints on occasion, from their being extremely destructive of crops. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves. In the US state of Louisiana, a non-native rodent known as a nutria have become so destructive to the local ecosystem that the state has initiated a bounty program to help control the population.

The American Fair Chase Tradition

The principles of the Fair Chase have been a part of the American hunting tradition for over 100 years. The role of the hunter-conservationist, popularized by Theodore Roosevelt has been central to the development of the modern Fair Chase tradition. Today, 95% of American Hunters see hunter ethics as an important part of the hunting tradition and recognize that Ethical Hunting extends beyond the bounds of legal or illegal activity.

Hunting Ranches

Along with Indian Blackbuck, Nilgai and many other exotic deer and antelope many from Africa, there are also Barasingha now found living in the wild in Texas, USA on lands managed as Hunting Ranches. Barasingha were brought to USA almost a 100 years ago to be introduced in the wild on land which is managed for sport hunting. Hunters can pay upwards of $4000 as fees for hunting a Barasingha.

New Zealand

Modern hunting has been a tradition handed down the generations in New Zealand. Early settlers released a number of sought after game animals in New Zealand including Red, Sika, and Fallow deer in the north island. Hunting in New Zealand is free on state owned land through a permit system with deer regarded as pests. Hunting in New Zealand is extremely physically demanding compared to that of the Unites States with the likes of tree stands being regarded as a joke by New Zealand hunters. With New Zealand's ever changing climate hunting can for an inexperienced or unprepared hunter be an extremely dangerous affair. Hunting in New Zealand shares none of the traditions that are followed in Europe. and by some may be regarded as an uncouth practice. Large game hunting in New Zealand is achieved by stalking in dense bush in the winter and on the tops of mountainous ranges during the summer. There are a magnitude of serious injuries every year reported by hunters but very few accidental shootings. To many New Zealander's in a traditional sense if a man does not hunt he is not a man.

Russia

Main article: Hunting in Russia

Wildlife management

Hunting gives resource managers an important tool in managing populations that might exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other species or, in some instances, damage human health or safety. Hunting reduces intraspecific competition for food and shelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some environmentalists assert that (re)introducing predators would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect. Others disagree, citing hunting as more selective. For science on this topic see: Aldo Leopold.

An example of using hunters in wildlife management can be found in the "Snow, Blue and Ross' Goose Conservation Order 2005." The Conservation Order allows hunters, after all other waterfowl seasons are closed, to shoot an unlimited number of these species of geese. The reason for the Conservation Order is that these species have grown so numerous that they are destroying the Arctic environment which many species of animals use as breeding areas.

Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control certain, specific animal populations. These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters although others may include amateur hunters. For example, managers may seek to reduce overpopulations of deer in urban parks through special "culls". In some cases, particularly in eastern North America, populations of deer have risen to such levels that organizations such as the Audubon Society have called for increased hunting to help forestall environmental degradation.

A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and, sometimes, the size or age of animals harvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population. Tools which are frequently used to control harvest are bag limits and season closures, although gear restrictions such as archery-only seasons are becoming increasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates.

Violations of hunting laws and regulations are normally punishable by law and, collectively, such violations are known as poaching.

===Bag limits===

Main article: Bag limits

Bag limits are provisions under the law which control how many animals of a given species or group of species can be killed although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply. There are also jurisdictions where bag limits are not applied at all or are not applied under certain circumstances. For example, in the UK, some shooting estates offer bags of 500 or more artificially reared and released birds per day. Where bag limits are used, however, there can be daily or seasonal bag limits. For example, ducks can often be harvested at a rate of six per hunter per day. Big game, like moose, most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animal per hunter. Bag limits sometimes also regulate the size, sex or age of animal that a hunter can kill such as in antlered and antlerless deer hunts. In many cases, bag limits are designed to more equitably allocate harvest among the hunting population rather than to protect animal populations, as such. This is because it makes little difference to the sustainability of an animal population if one hunter kills one hundred deer or if one hundred hunters kill one deer each; the absolute number of animals harvested is what matters, regardless of how it might be distributed among hunters. The phrase "bag limits" comes from the custom among hunters of small game such as birds to carry successful kills in a small bag, similar to a fishing kreel.

Closed season

A closed season is a time during which harvesting an animal of a given species is contrary to law. Typically, closed seasons are designed to protect a species when they are most vulnerable or, sometimes, to protect them during their breeding season. By extension, the period that is not the closed season is known as the open season.

Hunting Methods

1855 illustration of Native Americans hunting bison.

Historical, subsistence and sport hunting techniques can differ radically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where, when and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may vary depending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local custom, firearms and the animal being hunted. Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique, and some are used primarily in poaching and wildlife management, explicitly forbidden to sport hunters.

• Baiting is the use of decoys, lures, scent or food to attract animals
• Blind or stand hunting is waiting for animals from a concealed or elevated position
• Calling is the use of animal noises to attract or drive animals
• Camouflage is the use of visual concealment (or scent) to blend with the environment
• Dogs may be used to course or to help flush, herd, drive, track, point at, pursue or retrieve prey
• Driving is the herding of animals in a particular direction, usually toward another hunter in the group
• Flushing is the practice of scaring animals from concealed areas
• Glassing is the use of optics (such as binoculars) to more easily locate animals
• Glue is an indiscriminate passive form to kill birds
• Netting, including active netting with the use of cannon nets and rocket nets
• Scouting includes a variety of tasks and techniques for finding animals to hunt
• Spotlighting or Shining is the use of artificial light to find or blind animals before killing
• Stalking is the practice of walking quietly, often in pursuit of an identified animal
• Still Hunting is the practice of walking quietly in search of animals
• Tracking is the practice of reading physical evidence in pursuing animals
• Trapping is the use of devices (snares, pits, deadfalls) to capture or kill an animal

Trophy hunting

Main article: Trophy hunting

Úsov Château, the Czech Republic, contains a large collection of trophies acquired by Liechtensteins in their hunting expeditions in Europe, Africa and Asia.

Trophy hunting is the selective seeking of wild game. It may also include the controversial hunting of captive or semi-captive animals expressly bred and raised under controlled or semi-controlled conditions so as to attain trophy characteristics (canned hunts).

History

In the 19th century southern and central European hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, to be displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was often wasted. In contrast, in relatively scarcely populated northern Europe, hunting has remained the tradition of the common people, and one reason for it remains as a means of acquiring meat, although the standard of living does not require this. In the Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was, and still is, frowned upon, but an impressive trophy is considered a bonus. This is perhaps the most common practice of modern hunters worldwide. Hunting in North America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies, although it is now undertaken mainly for sport. The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists and is, in some areas, a significant industry.

Controversy

Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or endangered animals.. Opponents may also see trophy hunting as an issue of morality or animal cruelty, criticising the killing of living creatures for recreation. Advocates of trophy hunting disagree, saying that modern regulations explicitly address issues of unnecessary harassment and that the vast majority of the edible portions of the prey animal are consumed by hunters themselves or are given to local inhabitants for use in traditional ways.

There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the local economy. Hunters argue that fees paid contribute to the local economy and provide value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops. This analysis is, however, disputed by opponents of trophy hunting. Some argue whether the prey animals are worth more to the community dead, in the form of hunting, or alive, in the form of ecotourism.

Economics of hunting

A variety of industries benefit from hunting, and support hunting on economic grounds, beyond the ecological arguments of hunter-gathering and pastoral use of marginal habitats.

In Tanzania it is estimated that a safari hunter spends 50-100 times that of the average eco-tourist, and at a lower environmental impact. The average photo tourist often demands luxury accommodations and at a higher number of visitors to make the endeavor financially viable. In contrast, the average safari hunter travels on foot, staying in tented camps and in vastly smaller numbers. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the average eco-tourist. They argue that these hunters allow for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities.

File:Dmaurer with mulie buck 2007.jpg

A North Dakota hunter with a Mule Deer buck. Many in the midwest United States enjoy hunting.

In the United Kingdom the game hunting of birds as an industry is said to be extremely important to the rural economy: The Cobham Report of 1997 suggested it to be worth around £700 million, and hunting and shooting lobby groups now claim it to be worth over a billion.

Hunting is also a major industry in the United States, with many companies specializing in hunting equipment or specialty tourism. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds, including a significant luxury segment. In 2001, over 13 million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport. The Outdoor Channel and OLN are cable television channels where programs such as Hunter's Handbook TV teach hunting safety and showcase new hunting destinations or products such as recreational vehicles, specialty clothing or firearms.

In the U.S., proceeds from hunting licenses contribute to game management programs (especially at the state level) including preservation of wildlife habitat. Some organizations such as Ducks Unlimited and the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation provide sizeable funds to the enhancement and preservation of game animals, thereby augmenting or even exceeding government efforts. For instance, in 2004 the elk foundation reported that over a 20-year period it had preserved or improved some 4 million acres (16,000 km²) of habitat for a variety of wildlife.

Key parts of the agricultural industry may also support hunting. A marginal ranch or farm may be converted to a private "hunting preserve" to bring in tourist revenues, for example. Within American industrial forestry, deer are often considered pests, and hunters a key political ally to be used against more restrictive environmentalists.

Depictions in popular culture

Huckleberry Finn as a hunter, E. W. Kemble's drawing from the original 1884 edition of the book.

In addition to positive portrayals of hunting and hunters on television shows aimed at hunters, hunting is also frequently portrayed in movies and popular culture as part of a broader social commentary, such as in the Michael Cimino film, The Deer Hunter, where it takes on psychological symbolism as a prelude to war.

Some of the most widespread depictions of hunting have been through animation, particularly in feature-length movies such as the 1942 film Bambi and shorter Looney Tunes cartoons featuring Bugs Bunny and Elmer Fudd. Such anthropomorphism of prey animals or "varmints" is frequently used as social satire, with the audience intended to sympathize with the hunted animal and the socially powerful hunter portrayed as incompetent or a macho buffoon. At the other end of the spectrum Ted Nugent portrays the hunter as a rock and roll iconoclast.

Hunting may also be depicted in a matter-of-fact way, as in the 1990 film Dances with Wolves or the 1970 Little Big Man which contrast modern hunters with a romantic noble savage. Filmed depictions of hunting by aboriginal cultures like American Indians tend to be more sympathetic. Hunting is portrayed as necessary subsistence, as is the case in many Inuit and Alaskan Bush communities today. Varmint hunting of prairie dogs is depicted in John Ross' novel Unintended Consequences. A favorable depiction of hunting is found in L. Neil Smith's science fiction novel Pallas. Hunting is central to many works by Ernest Hemingway and even used as an extended metaphor in the new age self-help fiction of Carlos Castaneda's Journey to Ixtlan.

Many books or short stories and films also depict hunting. For example, The Most Dangerous Game features a man who, after becoming shipwrecked on a trip to South America to hunt jaguars, is himself hunted by another man. Ray Bradbury's A Sound of Thunder features people traveling back in time to hunt a Tyrannosaurus. The Lost World: Jurassic Park has a character named Roland Tembo who goes to Isla Sorna with Peter Ludlow to hunt a T. rex.

See also

• Animal Conservation
• Animal rights
• Anti-Hunting
• Bambi effect
• Big-game hunter
• Bowhunting
• Closed season
• Bushmeat
• Bushfood
• Hunt Saboteurs Association (HSA)
• Hunting horn
• Jäger
• National Rifle Association
• Safari Club International

Notes and references

Print Sources on Hunting in the American South

Dickson D. Bruce, Jr., Mississippi Quarterly (Spring 1977).

Kenneth S. Greenberg, Honor and Slavery: Lies, Duels, Noses, Masks, Dressing as a Woman, Gifts, Strangers, Humanitarianism, Death, Slave Rebellions, the Pro-Slavery Argument, Baseball, Hunting, and Gambling in the Old South (1996).

Steven Hahn, Radical History Review (1982).

Charles H. Hudson, Jr., in Indians, Animals, and the Fur Trade, ed., Shephard Krech III (1981).

Stuart A. Marks, Southern Hunting in Black and White: Nature, History, and Ritual in a Carolina Community (1991).

Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (1990).

Wiley C. Prewitt, “The Best of All Breathing: Hunting and Environmental Change in Mississippi, 1900-1980” M.A. thesis, (1991).

Nicolas W. Proctor, Bathed in Blood: Hunting and Mastery in the Old South (2002).

Jacob F. Rivers III, Cultural Values in the Southern Sporting Narrative (2002).

Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500-1800 (1990).

Richard C. Stedman and Thomas A. Heberlein, Rural Sociology (2001).

Nancy L. Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (1996).

External links

• Texas Parks and Wildlife Commission as an example of state agencies
• Hunting Dogs Reviews - A site where you can find reviews for all major types of hunting dogs including specifications, general info, pictures and many more.
• Hunting Rifles Reviews - A site where you can find reviews for all major types of hunting rifles including specifications, general info, pictures and many more.

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