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→‎Cardiovascular disease and salt: removed low salt study until someone can provide a peer-reviewed reference. Far too important a statement with only a press-release to back it up
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* High inflammation as measured by [[C-reactive protein]]
* High inflammation as measured by [[C-reactive protein]]
* Elevated blood levels of [[brain natriuretic peptide]] (also known as B-type) (BNP) <ref>{{cite journal |author=Wang TJ, Larson MG, Levy D, ''et al'' |title=Plasma natriuretic peptide levels and the risk of cardiovascular events and death |journal=N Engl J Med. |volume=350 |issue=7 |pages=655–63 |year=2004 |month=Feb |pmid=14960742 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa031994 |url=}}<!-- Pls confirm this ref--></ref>
* Elevated blood levels of [[brain natriuretic peptide]] (also known as B-type) (BNP) <ref>{{cite journal |author=Wang TJ, Larson MG, Levy D, ''et al'' |title=Plasma natriuretic peptide levels and the risk of cardiovascular events and death |journal=N Engl J Med. |volume=350 |issue=7 |pages=655–63 |year=2004 |month=Feb |pmid=14960742 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa031994 |url=}}<!-- Pls confirm this ref--></ref>
Overweightness


==Prevention==
==Prevention==

Revision as of 03:57, 10 November 2008

Cardiovascular disease
SpecialtyCardiology Edit this on Wikidata

Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels (arteries and veins). [1] While the term technically refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular system (as used in MeSH), it is usually used to refer to those related to atherosclerosis (arterial disease). These conditions have similar causes, mechanisms, and treatments. In practice, cardiovascular disease is treated by cardiologists, thoracic surgeons, vascular surgeons, neurologists, and interventional radiologists, depending on the organ system that is being treated. There is considerable overlap in the specialties, and it is common for certain procedures to be performed by different types of specialists in the same hospital.

Most countries face high and increasing rates of cardiovascular disease. Each year, heart disease kills more Americans than cancer.[2] Diseases of the heart alone caused 30% of all deaths, with other diseases of the cardiovascular system causing substantial further death and disability. Two out of three cardiac deaths occur without any diagnosis of cardiovascular disease[citation needed]. It is the number one cause of death and disability in the United States and most European countries (data available through 2005). A large histological study (PDAY) showed vascular injury accumulates from adolescence, making primary prevention efforts necessary from childhood.[3][4]

By the time that heart problems are detected, the underlying cause (atherosclerosis) is usually quite advanced, having progressed for decades. There is therefore increased emphasis on preventing atherosclerosis by modifying risk factors, such as healthy eating, exercise and avoidance of smoking.

Biomarkers

Some biomarkers are thought to offer a more detailed risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the clinical value of these biomarkers is questionable.[5] Currently, biomarkers which may reflect a higher risk of cardiovascular disease include:

Prevention

Attempts to prevent cardiovascular disease are more effective when they remove and prevent causes, and they often take the form of modifying risk factors. Some factors, such as gender, age, and family history, cannot be modified. Smoking cessation (or abstinence) is one of the most effective and easily modifiable changes. Regular cardiovascular exercise (aerobic exercise) complements healthy eating habits. According to the American Heart Association, build up of plaque on the arteries (atherosclerosis), partly as a result of high cholesterol and fat diet, is a leading cause for cardiovascular diseases. The combination of healthy diet and exercise is a means to improve serum cholesterol levels and reduce risks of cardiovascular diseases; if not, a physician may prescribe "cholesterol-lowering" drugs, such as the statins. These medications have additional protective benefits aside from their lipoprotein profile improvement. Aspirin may also be prescribed, as it has been shown to decrease the clot formation that may lead to myocardial infarctions and strokes; it is routinely prescribed for patients with one or more cardiovascular risk factors.

One possible way to decrease risk of cardiovascular disease is keep your total cholesterol below 150. In the Framingham Heart Study, those with total cholesterol below 150 only very rarely got coronary heart disease.

A magnesium deficiency, or lower levels of magnesium, can contribute to heart disease and a healthy diet that contains adequate magnesium may prevent heart disease.[7] Magnesium can be used to enhance long term treatment, so it may be effective in long term prevention.[8] Excess calcium may contribute to a buildup of calcium in the veins. Excess calcium can cause a magnesium deficiency, and magnesium can reduce excess calcium.

Cardiovascular disease and salt

There is evidence from one large unblinded randomised controlled trial of more than 3000 patients that reducing the amount of sodium in the diet reduced the risk of cardiovascular events by more than 25%.[9] This re-affirms evidence from the Intersalt study published in 1988, that high levels of dietary salt are harmful;[10] these results were at the time heavily disputed by the Salt Institute (the salt producers' trade organisation).[11]

Oral Hygiene and Cardiovascular Disease

Many recent clinical research discuss the direct relation between poor oral hygiene and cardiovascular disease. Oral bacteria and periodontal disease may trigger the inflammation in the coronary arteries and contribute to atherosclerosis (artery hardening and narrowing); same bacteria may determine the clot formation increasing the risk of heart attack or cerebral stroke. [12] [13]

Awareness

Atherosclerosis is a process that develops over decades and is often silent until an acute event (heart attack) develops in later life. Population based studies in the youth show that the precursors of heart disease start in adolescence. The process of atherosclerosis evolves over decades, and begins as early as childhood. The Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth Study demonstrated that intimal lesions appear in all the aortas and more than half of the right coronary arteries of youths aged 15–19 years. However, most adolescents are more concerned about other risks such as HIV, accidents, and cancer than cardiovascular disease.[14] This is extremely important considering that 1 in 3 people will die from complications attributable to atherosclerosis. In order to stem the tide of cardiovascular disease, primary prevention is needed. Primary prevention starts with education and awareness that cardiovascular disease poses the greatest threat and measures to prevent or reverse this disease must be taken.

Treatment

Treatment of cardiovascular disease depends on the specific form of the disease in each patient, but effective treatment always includes preventive lifestyle changes discussed above. Medications, such as blood pressure reducing medications, aspirin and the statin cholesterol-lowering drugs may be helpful. In some circumstances, surgery or angioplasty may be warranted to reopen, repair, or replace damaged blood vessels.

Types of cardiovascular diseases

Research

The causes, prevention, and/or treatment of all forms of cardiovascular disease are active fields of biomedical research, with hundreds of scientific studies being published on a weekly basis.

A fairly recent emphasis is on the link between low-grade inflammation that hallmarks atherosclerosis and its possible interventions. C-reactive protein (CRP) is an inflammatory marker that may be present in increased levels in the blood in patients at risk for cardiovascular disease. Its exact role in predicting disease is the subject of debate.

Some areas currently being researched include possible links between infection with Chlamydophila pneumoniae and coronary artery disease. The Chlamydia link has become less plausible with the absence of improvement after antibiotic use.[15]

See also

References

  1. ^ Maton, Anthea (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  2. ^ United States (1999). "Chronic Disease Overview". United States Government. Retrieved 2007-02-07.
  3. ^ Rainwater DL, McMahan CA, Malcom GT; et al. (1999). "Lipid and apolipoprotein predictors of atherosclerosis in youth: apolipoprotein concentrations do not materially improve prediction of arterial lesions in PDAY subjects. The PDAY Research Group". Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 19 (3): 753–61. PMID 10073983. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ McGill HC, McMahan CA, Zieske AW; et al. (2000). "Associations of coronary heart disease risk factors with the intermediate lesion of atherosclerosis in youth. The Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) Research Group". Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 20 (8): 1998–2004. PMID 10938023. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Wang TJ, Gona P, Larson MG, Tofler GH, Levy D, Newton-Cheh C, Jacques PF, Rifai N, Selhub J, Robins SJ, Benjamin EJ, D'Agostino RB, Vasan RS (2006). "Multiple biomarkers for the prediction of first major cardiovascular events and death". N. Engl. J. Med. 355 (25): 2631–9. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa055373. PMID 17182988.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Wang TJ, Larson MG, Levy D; et al. (2004). "Plasma natriuretic peptide levels and the risk of cardiovascular events and death". N Engl J Med. 350 (7): 655–63. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa031994. PMID 14960742. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Lack Energy? Maybe It's Your Magnesium Level
  8. ^ Rosanoff A, Seelig MS (2004). "Comparison of mechanism and functional effects of magnesium and statin pharmaceuticals". J Am Coll Nutr. 23 (5): 501S–505S. PMID 15466951. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. ^ Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E; et al. (2007). "Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP)". Br Med J. 334: 885. doi:10.1136/bmj.39147.604896.55. PMID 17449506. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Elliott P, Stamler J, Nichols R; et al. (1996). "Intersalt revisited: further analyses of 24 hour sodium excretion and blood pressure within and across populations. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group". Br Med J. 312 (7041): 1249–53. PMID 8634612. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Godlee F (2007). "Editor's Choice: Time to talk salt". Br Med J. 334 (7599): 0. doi:10.1136/bmj.39196.679537.47.
  12. ^ Oral Hygiene and Cardiovascular Disease American Heart Association
  13. ^ Real connection between oral health and heart disease University of Michigan Jan. 22, 1999
  14. ^ Vanhecke TE, Miller WM, Franklin BA, Weber JE, McCullough PA (2006). "Awareness, knowledge, and perception of heart disease among adolescents". Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 13 (5): 718–23. doi:10.1097/01.hjr.0000214611.91490.5e. PMID 17001210. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Andraws R, Berger JS, Brown DL (2005). "Effects of antibiotic therapy on outcomes of patients with coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". JAMA. 293 (21): 2641–7. doi:10.1001/jama.293.21.2641. PMID 15928286. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Informational

Organizations

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