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Philo distinguished between ''logos prophorikos'' (the uttered word) and the ''logos endiathetos'' (the word remaining within).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Adam Kamesar|title=The ''Logos Endiathetos'' and the ''Logos Prophorikos'' in Allegorical Interpretation: Philo and the D-Scholia to the ''Iliad'' |url=http://www.duke.edu/web/classics/grbs/FTexts/44/Kamesar.pdf |journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies (GRBS)|volume=44|year=2004|pages=163–181}}</ref> The [[Stoics]] also spoke of the ''[[Glossary of Stoic terms#L|logos spermatikos]]'' (the generative principle of the Universe), which is not important in the Biblical tradition, but is relevant in [[Neoplatonism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature|author=David L. Jeffrey|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zD6xVr1CizIC&pg=PA459&dq=Neoplatonism+logos#v=onepage&q=logos%20prophorikos%20the%20uttered%20word%20and%20the%20logos%20endiathetos%20the%20word%20remaining%20within&f=false|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co|year=1992|isbn=0-8028-3634-8|page=459}}</ref> Early translators from Greek, like [[Jerome]] in the 4th century, were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the Logos expressed in the [[Gospel of John]]. The [[Vulgate]] Bible usage of ''in principium erat verbum'' was thus constrained to use the perhaps inadequate noun ''verbum'' for word, but later [[romance language]] translations had the advantage of nouns such as ''le mot'' in French. Reformation translators took another approach. [[Martin Luther]] rejected ''Zeitwort'' (verb) in favor of ''Wort'' (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving ''the living word'' as felt by Jerome and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature|author=David L. Jeffrey|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zD6xVr1CizIC&pg=PA460&dq=Neoplatonism+logos#v=onepage&q=Neoplatonism%20logos&f=false|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co|year=1992|isbn=0-8028-3634-8|page=460}}</ref>
Philo distinguished between ''logos prophorikos'' (the uttered word) and the ''logos endiathetos'' (the word remaining within).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Adam Kamesar|title=The ''Logos Endiathetos'' and the ''Logos Prophorikos'' in Allegorical Interpretation: Philo and the D-Scholia to the ''Iliad'' |url=http://www.duke.edu/web/classics/grbs/FTexts/44/Kamesar.pdf |journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies (GRBS)|volume=44|year=2004|pages=163–181}}</ref> The [[Stoics]] also spoke of the ''[[Glossary of Stoic terms#L|logos spermatikos]]'' (the generative principle of the Universe), which is not important in the Biblical tradition, but is relevant in [[Neoplatonism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature|author=David L. Jeffrey|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zD6xVr1CizIC&pg=PA459&dq=Neoplatonism+logos#v=onepage&q=logos%20prophorikos%20the%20uttered%20word%20and%20the%20logos%20endiathetos%20the%20word%20remaining%20within&f=false|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co|year=1992|isbn=0-8028-3634-8|page=459}}</ref> Early translators from Greek, like [[Jerome]] in the 4th century, were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the Logos expressed in the [[Gospel of John]]. The [[Vulgate]] Bible usage of ''in principium erat verbum'' was thus constrained to use the perhaps inadequate noun ''verbum'' for word, but later [[romance language]] translations had the advantage of nouns such as ''le mot'' in French. Reformation translators took another approach. [[Martin Luther]] rejected ''Zeitwort'' (verb) in favor of ''Wort'' (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving ''the living word'' as felt by Jerome and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature|author=David L. Jeffrey|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zD6xVr1CizIC&pg=PA460&dq=Neoplatonism+logos#v=onepage&q=Neoplatonism%20logos&f=false|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co|year=1992|isbn=0-8028-3634-8|page=460}}</ref>


In English, ''logos'' is the root of "[[logic]]," and of the "[[-logy]]" suffix (e.g., geology).<ref name="Oxford">[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O27-logy.html Oxford Dictionary definition]:'' -logy repr. F. -logie, medL. -logia, Gr. -logíā, which is partly f. lógos discourse, speech, partly f. log-, var. of leg-, légein speak; hence derivs. in -logia mean either''</ref>
In English, ''logos'' is the root of the "[[-logy]]" suffix (e.g., geology).<ref name="Oxford">[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O27-logy.html Oxford Dictionary definition]:'' -logy repr. F. -logie, medL. -logia, Gr. -logíā, which is partly f. lógos discourse, speech, partly f. log-, var. of leg-, légein speak; hence derivs. in -logia mean either''</ref>


==Ancient Greek philosophy==
==Ancient Greek philosophy==

Revision as of 23:30, 23 February 2012

This article is about Logos (plural: logoi) in philosophy, rhetoric, linguistics, psychology and theology. For the plural logo, see Logo. For other uses, see Logos (disambiguation).
Logos, Greek spelling

Logos (/[invalid input: 'icon']ˈloʊɡɒs/, UK: /ˈlɒɡɒs/, or US: /ˈloʊɡoʊs/; Greek: λόγος logos) is an important term in philosophy, psychology, rhetoric and religion. Originally a word meaning "a ground", "a plea", "an opinion", "an expectation", "word," "speech," "account," "reason,"[1][2] it became a technical term in philosophy, beginning with Heraclitus (ca. 535–475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge.[3]

Ancient philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse, and Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse"[4] or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric.[5] The Stoic philosophers identified the term with the divine animating principle pervading the Universe.

After Judaism came under Hellenistic influence, Philo (ca. 20 BC–AD 50) adopted the term into Jewish philosophy.[6] The Gospel of John identifies the Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (theos),[7] and further identifies Jesus as the incarnation of the Logos.

Although the term "Logos" is widely used in this Christian sense, in academic circles it often refers to the various ancient Greek uses, or to post-Christian uses within contemporary philosophy, Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.

Etymology and linguistic issues

In ordinary, non-technical Greek, logos had a semantic field extending beyond "word" to notions such as, on the one hand, language, talk, statement, speech, conversation, tale, story, prose, proposition, and principle; and on the other hand, thought, reason, account, consideration, esteem, due relation, proportion, and analogy.[1]

Despite the conventional translation as "word," it is not used for a word in the grammatical sense; instead, the term lexis (λέξις) was used.[8] However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb legō (λέγω), meaning "to count, tell, say, speak".[1][8][9]

Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos (the uttered word) and the logos endiathetos (the word remaining within).[10] The Stoics also spoke of the logos spermatikos (the generative principle of the Universe), which is not important in the Biblical tradition, but is relevant in Neoplatonism.[11] Early translators from Greek, like Jerome in the 4th century, were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the Logos expressed in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of in principium erat verbum was thus constrained to use the perhaps inadequate noun verbum for word, but later romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le mot in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort (verb) in favor of Wort (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as felt by Jerome and Augustine.[12]

In English, logos is the root of the "-logy" suffix (e.g., geology).[13]

Ancient Greek philosophy

Heraclitus

The writing of Heraclitus was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy,[14] although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way it was used in ordinary Greek of his time.[15] For Heraclitus logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.[16]

This LOGOS holds always but humans always prove unable to understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this LOGOS, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.

— Diels-Kranz, 22B1

For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the LOGOS is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding.

— Diels-Kranz, 22B2

Listening not to me but to the LOGOS it is wise to agree that all things are one.

— Diels-Kranz, 22B50[17]

What logos means here is not certain: it may mean 'reason' or 'explanation' in the sense of an objective cosmic law; or it may signify nothing more than 'saying' or 'wisdom'.[18] Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.[19]

Aristotle's rhetorical logos

Aristotle, 384–322 BC.

Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle, in the Ars Rhetorica, gave logos a different technical definition as argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion (the other two modes are pathos (Greek: πάθος), persuasion by means of emotional appeal: "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind",[20] and ethos (ἦθος), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character.")[20] According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove."[20][21] In the words of Paul Rahe:

For Aristotle, logos is something more refined than the capacity to make private feelings public: it enables the human being to perform as no other animal can; it makes it possible for him to perceive and make clear to others through reasoned discourse the difference between what is advantageous and what is harmful, between what is just and what is unjust, and between what is good and what is evil.

— [4]

Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times.[22] Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos.[citation needed] On the other hand, trust in the speaker, built through ethos, enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.[23]

Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue,' in that the pathē they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue – as if an advocate were to try to whip an anti-Semitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors."[24]

Stoics

In Stoic philosophy, which began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC, the logos was the active reason pervading the universe and animating it. It was conceived of as material, and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos, ("logos spermatikos") or the law of generation in the universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos.[25]

The Stoics took all activity to imply a Logos, or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, to them, the Logos was anima mundi, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato.[26]

Logos in Hellenistic Judaism

In the Septuagint the term logos is used for the word of God in the creation of heaven in Psalm 33:6, and in some related contexts.

Philo of Alexandria

Philo (20 BC – 50 AD), a Hellenized Jew, used the term Logos to mean an intermediary divine being, or demiurge.[6] Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect idea, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world.[27] The Logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God."[27] Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated."[28]

The Platonic Ideas were located within the Logos, but the Logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world.[27] In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the Logos by Philo, who also said that the Logos was God's instrument in the creation of the universe.[27]

Christianity

Christ the Logos

Main article: Logos (Christianity)
In principio erat verbum, Latin for At the beginning there was the Word, from the Clementine Vulgate, Gospel of John, 1:1–18.

The Christian concept of the Logos is derived from the first chapter of the Gospel of John, where the Logos (often translated as “Word”) is described in terms that resemble, but likely surpass, the ideas of Philo:[29]

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was with God in the beginning. Through him all things were made; without him nothing was made that has been made. In him was life, and that life was the light of men. The light shines in the darkness, but the darkness has not understood it.

— [30]

John also explicitly identifies the Logos with Jesus:

The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us. We have seen his glory, the glory of the One and Only,[a] who came from the Father, full of grace and truth. John testifies concerning him. He cries out, saying, "This was he of whom I said, 'He who comes after me has surpassed me because he was before me.'"

— [31]

Christians who profess belief in the Trinity often consider John 1:1 to be a central text in their belief that Jesus is God, in connection with the idea that the Father, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit are equals. As theologian Frank Stagg writes:

As the Logos, Jesus Christ is God in self-revelation (Light) and redemption (Life). He is God to the extent that he can be present to man and knowable to man. The Logos is God,Jn 1:1 ... Yet the Logos is in some sense distinguishable from God, for "the Logos was with God."Jn 1:1 God and the Logos are not two beings, and yet they are also not simply identical. ... The Logos is God active in creation, revelation, and redemption.

— [32]

"God" or "a god"

Main article: John 1:1

The last four words of John 1:1 (θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος, literally "God was the Logos," or "God was the Word") have been a particular topic of debate within Christianity. In this construct, the subject (the Logos) and the complement (God) both appear in the nominative case, and the complement is therefore usually distinguished by dropping any article, and moving it before the verb.[33][34] Grammatically, the phrase could therefore read either "the Word was God" or "the Word was a god."[33] Early New Testament manuscripts did not distinguish upper and lower case,[33] so that pre-existing beliefs about the Trinity have influenced translation, although many scholars see the movement of "God" to the front of the clause as indicating an emphasis more consistent with "the Word was God."[35][36][37][38] Some translations, such as An American Translation[39] and Moffatt, New Translation,[40] preserve a sense of ambiguity with "the Word was divine." Related translations have also been suggested, such as "what God was the Word also was."[41]

While "the Word was God" is by far the most common English translation,[42] non-Trinitarian groups such as the Jehovah's Witnesses (in the New World Translation[43] and their edition of the Emphatic Diaglott[44]) and Unitarians (in Thomas Belsham's modification[45] of William Newcome's version) translate "the Word was a god."

Early Christian writers

Following John 1, the early Christian apologist Justin Martyr (c 150) identified Jesus as the Logos.[46][47] Like Philo, Justin also identified the Logos with the Angel of the Lord, and used this as a way of arguing for Christianity to Jews:

I shall give you another testimony, my friends, from the Scriptures, that God begot before all creatures a Beginning, [who was] a certain rational power [proceeding] from Himself, who is called by the Holy Spirit, now the Glory of the Lord, now the Son, again Wisdom, again an Angel, then God, and then Lord and Logos;

— [48]

In his First Apology, Justin used the Stoic concept of the Logos as a way of arguing for Christianity to non-Jews. Since a Greek audience would accept this concept, his argument could concentrate on identifying this Logos with Jesus.[46] However, Justin does not go so far as to articulate a fully consistent doctrine of the Logos.[46]

Rhema and logos

The word logos has been used in different senses along with Rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions.[49][50]

The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms Rhema and Logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word Dabar, as the Word of God.[51][52][53]

Some modern usage in Christian Theology distinguishes Rhema from Logos (which here refers to the written scriptures) while Rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word (Logos) is read,[54][55][56][57] although this distinction has been criticized.[58][59]

Neoplatonism

Plotinus with his disciples.

Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (204/5–270 AD) used the term "Logos" in ways which drew on Plato and the Stoics.[60] but the term Logos, was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism and similarities to Philo's concept of Logos appear to be accidental.[61] The Logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus[62] regarded as the first Neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales[63] in interpreting Logos as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the Hypostases[64] (The 'One', 'Spirit' (nous) and 'Soul').

Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit" and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest.[65] For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of Logos from the higher principle, and eros (loving) upward from the lower principle.[66] Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of Logos, but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine.[citation needed] Plotinus specifically avoided using the term Logos to refer to the second person of his trinity.[67] However, Plotinus influenced Victorinus who then influenced Augustine of Hippo.[68] Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.[69]

Victorinus differentiated between the Logos interior to God and the Logos related to the world by creation and salvation.[70]

Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought.[71] A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus.[72] In his Confessions Augustine described Logos as the Divine Eternal Word.,[73] by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenisticly influenced world (among which the Latin speaking west)[74] Augustine's Logos had taken body in Christ, the man in whom the logos (i.e. veritas or sepientia) was present as in no other man.[75]

Sufism

Ibn Arabi, 1165–1240.

The concept of Logos in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God), to the "Created" (man). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the Logos. The Logos is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the Logos, and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.[76][77]

One of the radical and boldest attempts to reformulate the Neoplatonic concepts into Sufism was due to the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam) and The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a Logos (Kalimah), as an aspect of the unique Divine Being. In his view the Divine Being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with Logos providing the link between man and divinity.[78]

Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the Logos concept from Neoplatonic and Christian sources,[79] although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it.[80] For Ibn Arabi, the Logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.[81]

Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the Neoplatonic Logos.[82] In the 15th century ʻAbd al-Karim al-Jili introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man. For al-Jili the perfect man (associated with the Logos or the Holy Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times, and appear in different guises.[83]

Jung's analytical psychology

A 37 year old Carl Jung in 1912.

In Carl Jung's analytical psychology, he contrasted a rational, decisive logos with an emotional mythos. Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of mythos.[84] In Jung's approach logos vs mythos can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".[85]

For Jung, logos represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its female counterpart, eros:

Woman’s psychology is founded on the principle of Eros, the great binder and loosener, whereas from ancient times the ruling principle ascribed to man is Logos. The concept of Eros could be expressed in modern terms as psychic relatedness, and that of Logos as objective interest.

— [86]

Jung attempted to equate logos and eros, his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness.[87] Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang[88] and was also influenced by the Neoplatonics.[89]

In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus:

In so far as the spirit is also a kind of "window on eternity"... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world, wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul.

And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros, while the anima compensates logos.[90]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: logos, 1889.
  2. ^ Entry λόγος at LSJ online.
  3. ^ Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed): Heraclitus, 1999.
  4. ^ a b Paul Anthony Rahe, Republics Ancient and Modern: The Ancien Régime in Classical Greece, University of North Carolina Press, 1994, ISBN 080784473X, p. 21.
  5. ^ Rapp, Christof, "Aristotle's Rhetoric", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
  6. ^ a b Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed): Philo Judaeus, 1999.
  7. ^ May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977.
  8. ^ a b Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: lexis, 1889.
  9. ^ Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: legō, 1889.
  10. ^ Adam Kamesar (2004). "The Logos Endiathetos and the Logos Prophorikos in Allegorical Interpretation: Philo and the D-Scholia to the Iliad" (PDF). Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies (GRBS). 44: 163–181.
  11. ^ David L. Jeffrey (1992). A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 459. ISBN 0-8028-3634-8.
  12. ^ David L. Jeffrey (1992). A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 460. ISBN 0-8028-3634-8.
  13. ^ Oxford Dictionary definition: -logy repr. F. -logie, medL. -logia, Gr. -logíā, which is partly f. lógos discourse, speech, partly f. log-, var. of leg-, légein speak; hence derivs. in -logia mean either
  14. ^ F.E. Peters, Greek Philosophical Terms, New York University Press, 1967.
  15. ^ W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1962, pp. 419ff.
  16. ^ The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  17. ^ Translations from Richard D. McKirahan, Philosophy before Socrates, Hackett, 1994.
  18. ^ Handboek geschiedenis van de wijsbegeerte 1, Article by Jaap Mansveld & Keimpe Algra, P41
  19. ^ W. K. C. Guthrie, The Greek Philosophers: From Thales to Aristotle, Methuen, 1967, p. 45.
  20. ^ a b c Aristotle, Rhetoric, in Patricia P. Matsen, Philip B. Rollinson, and Marion Sousa, Readings from Classical Rhetoric, SIU Press, 1990, ISBN 0809315920, p. 120.
  21. ^ In the translation by W. Rhys Roberts, this reads "the proof, or apparent proof, provided by the words of the speech itself."
  22. ^ Eugene Garver, Aristotle's Rhetoric: An art of character, University of Chicago Press, 1994, ISBN 0226284247, p. 114.
  23. ^ Garver, p. 192.
  24. ^ Robert Wardy, "Mighty Is the Truth and It Shall Prevail?", in Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric, Amélie Rorty (ed), University of California Press, 1996, ISBN 0520202287, p. 64.
  25. ^ Tripolitis, A., Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age, pages 37–38. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.
  26. ^ Studies in European Philosophy, by James Lindsay, 2006, ISBN 1406701734, page 53
  27. ^ a b c d Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume 1, Continuum, 2003, pp. 458–462.
  28. ^ Philo, De Profugis, cited in Gerald Friedlander, Hellenism and Christianity, P. Vallentine, 1912, pp. 114–115.
  29. ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" p. 302–310
  30. ^ John 1:1–5, NIV (BibleGateway).
  31. ^ John 1:14–15, NIV (BibleGateway).
  32. ^ Frank Stagg, New Testament Theology, Broadman, 1962. ISBN 978-0805416138
  33. ^ a b c J.W. Wenham, The Elements of New Testament Greek, Cambridge University Press, 1965, p. 35.
  34. ^ Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John, Eerdmans, 1995, p. 68, ISBN 0-8028-2504-4.
  35. ^ William Hendriksen, The Gospel of John, The Banner of Truth Trust, 1959, p. 71.
  36. ^ William D. Mounce, Basics of Biblical Greek, 2nd ed, Zondervan, 2003, pp. 27–28.
  37. ^ F. F. Bruce, Frederick Fyvie Bruce, The Gospel of John, Eerdmans , 1994, p. 31, ISBN 0-8028-0883-2.
  38. ^ D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to John, Eerdmans , 1991, p. 117, ISBN 0-8028-3683-6.
  39. ^ Innvista: An American Translation (Smith-Goodspeed).
  40. ^ Innvista: Moffatt, New Translation.
  41. ^ Francis J. Moloney and Daniel J. Harrington, The Gospel of John, Liturgical Press, 1998, p. 35. ISBN 0-8146-5806-7.
  42. ^ e.g. King James Version, Revised Standard Version, New American Standard Bible, New International Version, New Living Translation, English Standard Version, and Young's Literal Translation, with even more emphatic translations being "the Word was God Himself" (Amplified Bible) or "the Word ... was truly God" (Contemporary English Version).
  43. ^ New World Translation.
  44. ^ As distributed by the Watch Tower Society, the Emphatic Diaglott has "a god was the Word." [1] In the original 1865 edition, this can be found in the interlinear, but the English text has "the LOGOS was God." [2]
  45. ^ The New Testament: in an improved version upon the basis of Archbishop Newcome's new translation, with a corrected text, and notes critical and explanatory.
  46. ^ a b c Erwin R. Goodenough, The Theology of Justin Martyr, BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009, pp. 139–175. ISBN 1113914270.
  47. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Justin Martyr.
  48. ^ Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 61.
  49. ^ General linguistics by Francis P. Dinneen 1995 ISBN 0878402780 page 118 [3]
  50. ^ The history of linguistics in Europe from Plato to 1600 by Vivien Law 2003 ISBN 0521565324 page 29 [4]
  51. ^ Theological dictionary of the New Testament, Volume 1 by Gerhard Kittel, Gerhard Friedrich, Geoffrey William Bromiley 1985 ISBN 0802824048 page 508 [5]
  52. ^ The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: Q-Z by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1995 ISBN 0802837840 page 1102 [6]
  53. ^ Old Testament Theology by Horst Dietrich Preuss, Leo G. Perdue 1996 ISBN 0664218431 page 81 [7]
  54. ^ What Every Christian Ought to Know by Adrian Rogers 2005 ISBN 0805426922 page 162 [8]
  55. ^ The Identified Life of Christ by Joe Norvell 2006 ISBN 1597812943 page [9]
  56. ^ Holy Spirit, Teach Me by Brenda Boggs 2008 ISBN 1604774258 page 80
  57. ^ The Fight of Every Believer by Terry Law ISBN 1577945808 page 45
  58. ^ James T. Draper and Kenneth Keathley, Biblical Authority, Broadman & Holman, 2001, ISBN 0805424539, p. 113.
  59. ^ John F. MacArthur, Charismatic Chaos, Zondervan, 1993, ISBN 0310575729, pp. 45–46.
  60. ^ Michael F. Wagner, Neoplatonism and Nature: Studies in Plotinus' Enneads, Volume 8 of Studies in Neoplatonism, SUNY Press, 2002, ISBN 0791452719, pp. 116–117.
  61. ^ John M. Rist, Plotinus: The road to reality, Cambridge University Press, 1967, ISBN 0521060850, pp. 84–101.
  62. ^ Between Physics and Nous: Logos as Principle of Meditation in Plotinus The journal of neoplatonic studies, Volumes 7-8, 1999, page 3
  63. ^ Handboek Geschiedenis van de Wijsbegeerte I, Article by Carlos Steel
  64. ^ The journal of neoplatonic studies, Volumes 7-8, Institute of Global Cultural Studies, Binghamton University, 1999, P16
  65. ^ Ancient philosophy by Anthony Kenny 2007 ISBN 0198752725 page 311
  66. ^ The Enneads by Plotinus, Stephen Mackenna, John M. Dillon 1991 ISBN 014044520X page xcii [10]
  67. ^ Neoplatonism in Relation to Christianityby Charles Elsee 2009 ISBN 1116926296 pages 89–90 [11]
  68. ^ The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology edited by Alan Richardson, John Bowden 1983 ISBN 0664227481 page 448 [12]
  69. ^ Jung and aesthetic experience by Donald H. Mayo, 1995 ISBN 0820427241 page 69
  70. ^ Theological treatises on the Trinity, by Marius Victorinus, Mary T. Clark, page 25
  71. ^ Neoplatonism and christian thought (Volume 2), By Dominic J. O'Meara, page 39
  72. ^ Hans Urs von Balthasar, Christian meditation Ignatius Press ISBN 0898702356 page 8
  73. ^ Confessions, Augustine, P130
  74. ^ Handboek Geschiedenis van de Wijsbegeerte I, Article by Douwe Runia
  75. ^ De immortalitate animae of Augustine: text, translation and commentary, By Saint Augustine (Bishop of Hippo.), C. W. Wolfskeel, introduction
  76. ^ Sufism: love & wisdom by Jean-Louis Michon, Roger Gaetani 2006 ISBN 0941532755 page 242 [13]
  77. ^ Sufi essays by Seyyed Hossein Nasr 1973 ISBN 0873952332 page 148
  78. ^ Biographical encyclopaedia of Sufis by N. Hanif 2002 ISBN 8176252662 page 39 [14]
  79. ^ Charles A. Frazee, "Ibn al-'Arabī and Spanish Mysticism of the Sixteenth Century," Numen 14 (3), Nov 1967, pp. 229–240.
  80. ^ J.T. Little, "Al-Insān al-Kāmil: The perfect man according to Ibn al-'Arabī," The Muslim World, 1987, Vol. 77, pp. 43–54: "Ibn al-'Arabi uses no less than twenty-two different terms to describe the various aspects under which this single Logos may be viewed."
  81. ^ Robert J. Dobie, Logos & Revelation: Ibn 'Arabi, Meister Eckhart, and mystical hermeneutics, Catholic University of America Press, 2009, ISBN 081321677X, p. 225.
  82. ^ Edward Henry Whinfield, Masnavi I Ma'navi: The spiritual couplets of Maulána Jalálu-'d-Dín Muhammad Rúmí, Routledge, 2001 (originally published 1898), ISBN 0415245311, p. xxv.
  83. ^ Biographical encyclopaedia of Sufis by N. Hanif 2002 ISBN 8176252662 page 98 [15]
  84. ^ C.G. Jung and the psychology of symbolic forms by Petteri Pietikäinen 2001 ISBN 9514108574 page 22
  85. ^ Mythos and logos in the thought of Carl Jung by Walter A. Shelburne 1988 ISBN 0887066933 page 4 [16]
  86. ^ Carl Jung, Aspects of the Feminine, Princeton University Press, 1982, p. 65, ISBN 0710095228.
  87. ^ Aspects of the masculine by Carl Gustav Jung, John Beebe page 85
  88. ^ Carl Gustav Jung: critical assessments by Renos K. Papadopoulos 1992 ISBN 0415048303 page 19
  89. ^ See the Neoplatonic section above.
  90. ^ The handbook of Jungian psychology: theory, practice and applications by Renos K. Papadopoulos 2006 ISBN 1583911472 page 118 [17]

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