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* '''[[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]''': [[Turkish language|Turkish]]<ref name="Language Materials Project">{{cite web|publisher=[[UCLA]] International Institute, Center for World Languages|url=http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=67&menu=004|title=Language Materials Project: Turkish|accessdate=2007-04-26|month=February | year=2007}}</ref> (partially)<ref name=innerAsia>{{cite book|last=Sinor|first=Denis|title=Inner Asia. History-Civilization-Languages. A syllabus|year=1969|publisher=Bloomington|isbn=0-87750-081-9|pages=71–96|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vn-xZ3O1G-cC&pg=PA71#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>
* '''[[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]''': [[Turkish language|Turkish]]<ref name="Language Materials Project">{{cite web|publisher=[[UCLA]] International Institute, Center for World Languages|url=http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=67&menu=004|title=Language Materials Project: Turkish|accessdate=2007-04-26|month=February | year=2007}}</ref> (partially)<ref name=innerAsia>{{cite book|last=Sinor|first=Denis|title=Inner Asia. History-Civilization-Languages. A syllabus|year=1969|publisher=Bloomington|isbn=0-87750-081-9|pages=71–96|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vn-xZ3O1G-cC&pg=PA71#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>
*'''[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]''': [[Russian language|Russian]] (partially) and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]<ref name=BlrRusUkr>Alexander M. Schenker. 1993. "Proto-Slavonic," ''The Slavonic Languages''. (Routledge). Pp. 60-121. Pg. 60: "[The] distinction between dialect and language being blurred, there can be no unanimity on this issue in all instances..."<br>C.F. Voegelin and F.M. Voegelin. 1977. ''Classification and Index of the World's Languages'' (Elsevier). Pg. 311, "In terms of immediate mutual intelligibility, the East Slavic zone is a single language."<br>Bernard Comrie. 1981. ''The Languages of the Soviet Union'' (Cambridge). Pg. 145-146: "The three East Slavonic languages are very close to one another, with very high rates of mutual intelligibility...The separation of Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian as distinct languages is relatively recent...Many Ukrainians in fact speak a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian, finding it difficult to keep the two languages apart...</ref>
*'''[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]''': [[Russian language|Russian]] (partially) and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]<ref name=BlrRusUkr>Alexander M. Schenker. 1993. "Proto-Slavonic," ''The Slavonic Languages''. (Routledge). Pp. 60-121. Pg. 60: "[The] distinction between dialect and language being blurred, there can be no unanimity on this issue in all instances..."<br>C.F. Voegelin and F.M. Voegelin. 1977. ''Classification and Index of the World's Languages'' (Elsevier). Pg. 311, "In terms of immediate mutual intelligibility, the East Slavic zone is a single language."<br>Bernard Comrie. 1981. ''The Languages of the Soviet Union'' (Cambridge). Pg. 145-146: "The three East Slavonic languages are very close to one another, with very high rates of mutual intelligibility...The separation of Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian as distinct languages is relatively recent...Many Ukrainians in fact speak a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian, finding it difficult to keep the two languages apart...</ref>
*'''[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]''': [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] (partially)<ref name=BulMac>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?menu=004&LangID=42 Language profile Macedonian], UCLA International Institute</ref>
*'''[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]''': [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] <ref name=BulMac>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?menu=004&LangID=42 Language profile Macedonian], UCLA International Institute </ref>[[Serbo-Croatian]] (partially)
*'''[[Czech language|Czech]]''': [[Slovak language|Slovak]]<ref name=CzeSlo>{{cite book |title=Speaking from the Margin: Global English from a European Perspective |chapter=Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe |chapterurl=http://www.newjumbo.info/go/nph-go.cgi/000110A/http/web.archive.org/web/20060313102742/http:/=2fwww.york.ac.uk/depts/lang/Jack_Chambers/globalisation.pdf |last=Trudgill |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Trudgill |editor1-last=Duszak |editor1-first=Anna |editor2-last=Okulska |editor2-first=Urszula |publisher=Peter Lang |series=Polish Studies in English Language and Literature 11 |year=2004 |isbn=0-8204-7328-6}}</ref>
*'''[[Czech language|Czech]]''': [[Slovak language|Slovak]]<ref name=CzeSlo>{{cite book |title=Speaking from the Margin: Global English from a European Perspective |chapter=Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe |chapterurl=http://www.newjumbo.info/go/nph-go.cgi/000110A/http/web.archive.org/web/20060313102742/http:/=2fwww.york.ac.uk/depts/lang/Jack_Chambers/globalisation.pdf |last=Trudgill |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Trudgill |editor1-last=Duszak |editor1-first=Anna |editor2-last=Okulska |editor2-first=Urszula |publisher=Peter Lang |series=Polish Studies in English Language and Literature 11 |year=2004 |isbn=0-8204-7328-6}}</ref>
*'''[[Danish language|Danish]]''': [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]<ref name=DanNorSve>{{cite journal | last=Bø | first=I | year=1976 | title=Ungdom od nabolad. En undersøkelse av skolens og fjernsynets betydning for nabrospråksforstålen. | journal=Rogalandsforskning | volume=4}}</ref> (both partially<ref name="gooskens"/>)
*'''[[Danish language|Danish]]''': [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]<ref name=DanNorSve>{{cite journal | last=Bø | first=I | year=1976 | title=Ungdom od nabolad. En undersøkelse av skolens og fjernsynets betydning for nabrospråksforstålen. | journal=Rogalandsforskning | volume=4}}</ref> (both partially<ref name="gooskens"/>)
Line 44: Line 44:
*'''[[Kinyarwanda]]''': [[Kirundi]]<ref name=KinKir>[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/kirundi.php Kirundi Language]</ref>
*'''[[Kinyarwanda]]''': [[Kirundi]]<ref name=KinKir>[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/kirundi.php Kirundi Language]</ref>
*'''[[Kirundi]]''': [[Kinyarwanda]]<ref name=KinKir/>
*'''[[Kirundi]]''': [[Kinyarwanda]]<ref name=KinKir/>
*'''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]''': [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] (partially)<ref name=BulMac/>, [[Serbo-Croatian]] (partially)<ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?menu=004&LangID=42 Macedonian language] on UCLA</ref>
*'''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]''': [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]<ref name=BulMac/>, [[Serbo-Croatian]] (partially)<ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?menu=004&LangID=42 Macedonian language] on UCLA</ref>
*'''[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]''': [[Danish language|Danish]] (partially<ref name="gooskens"/>) and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]<ref name=DanNorSve/>
*'''[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]''': [[Danish language|Danish]] (partially<ref name="gooskens"/>) and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]<ref name=DanNorSve/>
*'''[[Persian language|Persian]]''': [[Dari (Persian)|Dari]]<ref name=DariPersianTajik/>
*'''[[Persian language|Persian]]''': [[Dari (Persian)|Dari]]<ref name=DariPersianTajik/>

Revision as of 07:49, 6 September 2012

In linguistics, mutual intelligibility is a relationship between languages or dialects in which speakers of different but related languages can readily understand each other without intentional study or special effort. It is sometimes used as a criterion for distinguishing languages from dialects, though sociolinguistic factors are also important.

Intelligibility between languages can be asymmetric, with speakers of one understanding more of the other than speakers of the other understand of the first. It is when it is relatively symmetric that it is characterized as 'mutual'. It exists in differing degrees among many related or geographically proximate languages of the world, often in the context of a dialect continuum.

Intelligibility

For individuals to achieve moderate proficiency or understanding in a language (called L2) other than their first language (L1) typically requires considerable time and effort through study and/or practical application. However, many groups of languages are partly mutually intelligible, i.e. most speakers of one language find it relatively easy to achieve some degree of understanding in the related language(s). Often the languages are genetically related, and they are likely to be similar to each other in grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, or other features. An example of a pair of genetically related languages is a creole and a parent language.

Intelligibility among languages can vary between individuals or groups within a language population according to their knowledge of various registers and vocabulary in their own language, their interest in or familiarity with other cultures, the domain of discussion, psycho-cognitive traits, the mode of language used (written vs. oral), and other factors.

Mutually intelligible languages or varieties of one language

There is no formal distinction between two distinct languages and two varieties of a single language, but linguists generally use mutual intelligibility as one of the primary factors in deciding between the two cases.[1][2] Some linguists claim that mutual intelligibility is, ideally at least, the primary criterion separating languages from dialects. On the other hand, speakers of closely related languages can often communicate with each other to a fair degree; thus there are varying degrees of mutual intelligibility, and often other criteria are also used. As an example, in the case of a linear dialect chain that shades gradually between varieties, where speakers near the center can understand the varieties at both ends, but speakers at one end cannot understand the speakers at the other end, the entire chain is often considered a single language. If the central varieties then die out and only the varieties at both ends survive, they may then be reclassified as two languages, even though no actual language change has occurred.

In addition, political and social conventions often override considerations of mutual intelligibility. For example, the varieties of Chinese and of Arabic are often each considered a single language even though there is often no mutual intelligibility between geographically separated varieties. In contrast, there is often significant intelligibility between different Scandinavian languages, but as each of them has its own standard form, they are classified as separate languages.) To deal with the conflict in cases such as Arabic, Chinese, and German, the term Dachsprache (a sociolinguistic 'umbrella' language) is sometimes seen: Arabic, Chinese, and German are languages in the sociolinguistic sense even though some speakers cannot understand each other without recourse to a standard or prestige form.

Asymmetric intelligibility

Asymmetric intelligibility is a term used by linguists to describe two languages that are considered mutually intelligible, but where one group of speakers has more difficulty understanding the other language than vice versa. There can be various reasons for this. If, for example, one language is related to another but has simplified its grammar, the speakers of the original language may understand the simplified language, but not vice versa.

In other cases, two languages have very similar written forms, but are pronounced very differently. If the spoken form of one of the languages is more similar to the common written form, speakers of the other language may understand this language more than vice versa. This may account for the common claim that Portuguese speakers can understand Spanish more easily than the other way around,[citation needed] since certain letters that are largely written the same in both languages (e.g. ‹a e i o u r n s›) tend to have only one pronunciation in Spanish (or if there are multiple pronunciations, they are similar) but they have multiple, often very different pronunciations in Portuguese depending on context and the position in a word.

However, perhaps the most common reason for apparent asymmetric intelligibility is that speakers of one variety have more exposure to the other than vice versa. For example, speakers of Scottish English have frequent exposure to American English through movies and TV programs, while speakers of American English have little exposure to Scottish English; hence, American English speakers often find it difficult to understand Scottish English, while Scottish English speakers tend to have few problems understanding American English.

In some cases it is hard to distinguish between mutual intelligibility and a basic knowledge of other language. Many Belarusian and Ukrainian speakers have a basic knowledge of Russian and use it as a second language or lingua franca. Thus they can understand Russian, while speakers of Russian can understand Ukrainian and Belarusian only partially.

Norwegian Bokmål and Standard Danish have some asymmetric intelligibility, as speakers of Norwegian can understand Danish better than vice versa.[3] The reason for this is uncertain.

List of mutually intelligible languages

Written and spoken forms

Spoken forms only

Written forms only

In ancient times

Dialects or registers of one language sometimes considered separate languages

See also

References

  1. ^ Gröschel, Bernhard (2009). Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit. Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics ; vol 34 (in German). Munich: Lincom Europa. pp. 132–136. ISBN 978-3-929075-79-3. LCCN 2009473660. OCLC 428012015. OL 15295665W. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b Kordić, Snježana (2010). Jezik i nacionalizam. Rotulus Universitas (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Durieux. pp. 101–108. ISBN 978-953-188-311-5. LCCN 2011520778. OCLC 729837512. OL 15270636W. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2012. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Gooskens, Charlotte (2007). "The Contribution of Linguistic Factors to the Intelligibility of Closely Related Languages" (PDF). Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 28 (6). University of Groningen. Retrieved 2010-05-19.
  4. ^ a b "Language Materials Project: Turkish". UCLA International Institute, Center for World Languages. 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-26. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ^ a b Sinor, Denis (1969). Inner Asia. History-Civilization-Languages. A syllabus. Bloomington. pp. 71–96. ISBN 0-87750-081-9.
  6. ^ a b c Alexander M. Schenker. 1993. "Proto-Slavonic," The Slavonic Languages. (Routledge). Pp. 60-121. Pg. 60: "[The] distinction between dialect and language being blurred, there can be no unanimity on this issue in all instances..."
    C.F. Voegelin and F.M. Voegelin. 1977. Classification and Index of the World's Languages (Elsevier). Pg. 311, "In terms of immediate mutual intelligibility, the East Slavic zone is a single language."
    Bernard Comrie. 1981. The Languages of the Soviet Union (Cambridge). Pg. 145-146: "The three East Slavonic languages are very close to one another, with very high rates of mutual intelligibility...The separation of Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian as distinct languages is relatively recent...Many Ukrainians in fact speak a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian, finding it difficult to keep the two languages apart...
  7. ^ a b Language profile Macedonian, UCLA International Institute
  8. ^ a b Trudgill, Peter (2004). "Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe". In Duszak, Anna; Okulska, Urszula (eds.). Speaking from the Margin: Global English from a European Perspective. Polish Studies in English Language and Literature 11. Peter Lang. ISBN 0-8204-7328-6. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ a b c Bø, I (1976). "Ungdom od nabolad. En undersøkelse av skolens og fjernsynets betydning for nabrospråksforstålen". Rogalandsforskning. 4.
  10. ^ a b c d e Dari/Persian/Tajik languages
  11. ^ a b Beerkens, Roos (2010). Receptive Multilingualism as a Language Mode in the Dutch-German Border Area. Waxmann Publishing Co. p. 51. ISBN 978-3-8309-2346-6.
  12. ^ a b Katzner, Kenneth (2002). The languages of the world. Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 0-415-25003-X.
  13. ^ Taagepera, Rein (1999). The Finno-Ugric republics and the Russian state. Routledge. p. 100. ISBN 0-415-91977-0.
  14. ^ a b Beswick, Jaine (2005). "Linguistic homogeneity in Galician and Portuguese borderland communities". Estudios de Sociolingüística. 6 (1): 39–64.
  15. ^ [1]
  16. ^ a b Kirundi Language
  17. ^ Macedonian language on UCLA
  18. ^ a b GAVILANES LASO, J. L. (1996) Algunas consideraciones sobre la inteligibilidad mutua hispano-portuguesa In: Actas del Congreso Internacional Luso-Español de Lengua y Cultura en la Frontera, Cáceres, Universidad de Extremadura, 175-187.
  19. ^ a b Comparação Português e Castelhano
  20. ^ a b Algumas observações sobre a noção de língua portuguesa
  21. ^ [2]
  22. ^ Wright, Sue (1996). Monolingualism and bilingualism: Lessons from Canada and Spain. Multilingual Matters Ltd. p. 80. ISBN 1-85359-354-0.
  23. ^ a b Tokelauan language
  24. ^ Българският език през ХХ век (The Bulgarian language in the 20th century)
  25. ^ a b Avrum Ehrlich, Mark (2009). Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: origins, experience and culture, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-85109-873-6.
  26. ^ a b Ausbau and Abstand languages
  27. ^ a b Hahn, Reinard F. (1998). "Uyghur". The Turkic Languages. Taylor & Francis. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-415-08200-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ Barbour, Stephen (2000). Language and nationalism in Europe. Oxford University Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-19-925085-1.
  29. ^ Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 315. ISBN 1-4051-0316-7.
  30. ^ Gumperz, John J. (February, 1957). "Language Problems in the Rural Development of North India". The Journal of Asian Studies. 16 (2): 251–259. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  31. ^ Swan, Michael (2001). Learner English: a teacher's guide to interference and other problems. Cambridge University Press. p. 279. ISBN 978-0-521-77939-5.
  32. ^ Greenberg, Robert David (2004). Language and identity in the Balkans: Serbo-Croatian and its disintegration. Oxford University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-19-925815-4.
  33. ^ Kordić, Snježana (2004). "Pro und kontra: "Serbokroatisch" heute". In Krause, Marion; Sappok, Christian (eds.). Slavistische Linguistik 2002: Referate des XXVIII. Konstanzer Slavistischen Arbeitstreffens, Bochum 10.-12. September 2002 (in German). Munich: Otto Sagner. pp. 110–114. ISBN 3-87690-885-X4. OCLC 56198470. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |trans_title= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_chapter= ignored (|trans-chapter= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ http://www.dalityapi.com/2007_08_01_archive.html
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