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== Validity ==
== Validity ==


Although graphology had some support in the scientific community before the mid-twentieth century, the results of most recent surveys on the ability for graphology to assess personality and job performance have been negative.<ref name="kingkoehler">{{Citation
Although graphology had some support in the scientific community before the mid-twentieth century, the results of some recent surveys on the ability for graphology to assess personality and job performance have been negative.<ref name="kingkoehler">{{Citation
|title=Illusory Correlations in Graphological Inference
|title=Illusory Correlations in Graphological Inference
|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
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* Vagueness: Some important principles of graphology are vague enough to allow a lot of room for a graphologist to skew interpretations to suit a subject or preconceived conclusion. For example, one of the main concepts in the theory of [[Ludwig Klages]] is ''form-niveau'' (or ''form-level''): the overall level of originality, beauty, harmony, style, etc. of a person's handwriting—a quality that, according to Klages, can be perceived but not measured. According to this theory, the same sign has a positive or negative meaning depending on the subject's overall character and personality as revealed by the form-niveau. In practice, this can lead the graphologist to interpret signs positively or negatively depending on whether the subject has high or low social status.<ref>Ulfried Geuter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nG9TDItv-QQC&pg=PA95 The Professionalization of Psychology in Nazi Germany]'', pp. 95–96. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1992.</ref>
* Vagueness: Some important principles of graphology are vague enough to allow a lot of room for a graphologist to skew interpretations to suit a subject or preconceived conclusion. For example, one of the main concepts in the theory of [[Ludwig Klages]] is ''form-niveau'' (or ''form-level''): the overall level of originality, beauty, harmony, style, etc. of a person's handwriting—a quality that, according to Klages, can be perceived but not measured. According to this theory, the same sign has a positive or negative meaning depending on the subject's overall character and personality as revealed by the form-niveau. In practice, this can lead the graphologist to interpret signs positively or negatively depending on whether the subject has high or low social status.<ref>Ulfried Geuter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nG9TDItv-QQC&pg=PA95 The Professionalization of Psychology in Nazi Germany]'', pp. 95–96. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1992.</ref>



== Approaches ==
== Approaches ==

Revision as of 07:07, 21 August 2014

Template:Distinguish2

For the linguistic study of writing systems which has sometimes been called graphology, see graphemics.

Graphology is the study of handwriting.[1] As a theory or practice for inferring a person's character, disposition, and attitudes from their handwriting, graphology is generally considered pseudoscience.[2][3][4] The term is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to forensic document examination.

Graphology has been controversial for more than a century. Although supporters point to the anecdotal evidence of positive testimonials as a reason to use it for personality evaluation, most empirical studies fail to show the validity claimed by its supporters.[5][6]

Etymology

From grapho- (from the Greek γραφή, "writing") and logos (from the Greek λόγος, "word"). There also exist many other words formed from the same root: Graphopathology, Graphomaniac, Graphistic, Graphopsychology, Psychographology, Graphometric, Graphometry, Graphoanalysis, Graphotechnology, Micrographia.

History

Three books have been claimed to be the first book on graphology:

  1. Juan Huarte de San Juan's 1575 Examen de ingenios para las ciencias[7] This was first proposed by Jean-Charles Gille in 1991.[8]
  2. Prospero Aldorisio's 1611 Idengraphicus nuntius[9]
  3. Camillo Baldi's Trattato come da una lettera missiva si conoscano la natura e qualita dello scrittore[10] which was unofficially published in 1622. The 1625 edition was probably the first authorized edition of Baldi's book. In American graphology, this is considered to be the first book.[11]

Around 1830 Jean-Hippolyte Michon became interested in handwriting analysis. He published his findings[12][13] shortly after founding Société Graphologique in 1871. The most prominent of his disciples was Jules Crépieux-Jamin who rapidly published a series of books[14][15] that were soon published in other languages.[16][17] Starting from Michon's integrative approach, Crépieux-Jamin ended up with a holistic approach to graphology.

Alfred Binet was convinced to do research into graphology from 1893 to 1907. He ended up calling it "the science of the future", despite graphologists' rejecting the results of his research.

After World War I, interest in graphology continued to spread in Europe as well as the United States. In Germany during the 1920s, Ludwig Klages founded and published his finding in Zeitschrift für Menschenkunde (Journal for the Study of Mankind). His major contribution to the field can be found in Handschrift und Charakter.[18][19]

Thea Stein Lewinson and J. Zubin modified Klage's ideas, based upon their experience working for the U.S. government, publishing their method in 1942.[20]

In 1929 Milton Bunker founded The American Grapho Analysis Society teaching Graphoanalysis. This organization and its system split the American graphology world in two. Students had to choose between graphoanalysis or holistic graphology. Whilst hard data is lacking, anecdotal evidence indicates that 10% of the members of International Graphoanalysis Society (IGAS) were expelled between 1970 and 1980.[21] By the time Peter Ferrera died in 1991, the decimation of IGAS members had resulted in a decline of the influence of Graphoanalysis, and IGAS on American graphology.

Klara G. Roman was the most prominent of the German refugee scholars. Her books are still considered to be foundations for contemporary American Holistic graphology. She taught at the New School for Social Research in New York, and was succeeded there by Daniel S. Anthony and Florence Anthony.

Handwriting Workshops Unlimited was organized by Charlie Cole as a series of lectures for advanced students of graphoanalysis. These lectures featured holistic graphologists such as Thea Lewinson and Klara Roman. By 1960 all of the participants had been expelled by IGAS. These individuals went on to form the American Handwriting Analysis Foundation. Later mass expulsions of IGAS members led to the formation of other societies, such as the American Association of Handwriting Analysts that were orientated towards holistic graphology.

In 1972 talks between the American Handwriting Analysis Foundation and the American Association of Handwriting Analysis started, with the aim to form a single organization. Those talks resulted in the creation of the Council of Graphological Societies in 1976.

Stephen Bongiovanni created a theoretical basis for graphology based on the correlation of graphic expressive elements and behavioral traits. According to his theory, a single personality characteristic is defined by the combination of the four primary graphic elements of the baseline, enclosure, imposed pattern and stroke. The theory is included in the 1998 resource center www.handwritingpro.com.[22]

Since the rise of the Internet in the early 1990s, the graphology organizations have suffered major declines in membership. However, because of email lists, communication between graphologists representing different approaches has increased.

Validity

Although graphology had some support in the scientific community before the mid-twentieth century, the results of some recent surveys on the ability for graphology to assess personality and job performance have been negative.[23][24][25][26] Graphology is primarily used as a recruiting tool to screen candidates during the evaluation process. Many studies have been conducted to assess its effectiveness to predict personality and job performance. Recent studies testing the validity of using handwriting for predicting personality traits and job performance have been consistently negative.[23][26]

In a 1987 study, graphologists were unable to predict scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire using writing samples from the same people.[6] In a 1988 study, graphologists were unable to predict scores on the Myers-Briggs test using writing samples from the same people.[27] A 1982 meta-analysis drawn from over 200 studies concludes that graphologists were generally unable to predict any kind of personality trait on any personality test.[28]

Measures of job performance appear similarly unrelated to the handwriting metrics of graphologists. Professional graphologists using handwriting analysis were just as ineffective as lay people at predicting performance in a 1989 study.[29] A broad literature screen done by King and Koehler confirmed dozens of studies showing the mechanical aspects of graphology (slant, slope, etc.) are essentially worthless predictors of job performance.[23]

Rowan Bayne, a British psychologist who has written several studies on graphology, summarized his view of the appeal of graphology: "It's very seductive because at a very crude level someone who is neat and well behaved tends to have neat handwriting", adding that the practice is "useless... absolutely hopeless".[30] The British Psychological Society ranks graphology alongside astrology, giving them both "zero validity".[30]

Overall, despite a few studies that support handwriting analysis, such as Crumbaugh and Stockholm,[31] the large majority of studies such as Ben-Shakar, Bar-Hillel, Blum, Ben-Abba, & Flug and many others indicate evidence against its predictive validity.[32]

Graphology was also dismissed as a pseudo-science by James Randi in 1991.[33]

There is some evidence of a relationship between gender and handwriting style, though the correlation is weak.[34]

Additional specific objections

  • The Barnum effect and the Dr Fox effect.[35] These phenomena make it difficult to validate methods of personality testing. These describe the observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. See, for example, Tallent (1958).[36] Non-individualized graphological reports give credence to this criticism.
  • Effect Size: Dean's (1992)[37][38] primary argument against the use of graphology is that the effect size is too small. Regardless of the validity of handwriting analysis, the research results imply that it is not applicable for any specific individual, but may be applicable to a group.
  • Vagueness: Some important principles of graphology are vague enough to allow a lot of room for a graphologist to skew interpretations to suit a subject or preconceived conclusion. For example, one of the main concepts in the theory of Ludwig Klages is form-niveau (or form-level): the overall level of originality, beauty, harmony, style, etc. of a person's handwriting—a quality that, according to Klages, can be perceived but not measured. According to this theory, the same sign has a positive or negative meaning depending on the subject's overall character and personality as revealed by the form-niveau. In practice, this can lead the graphologist to interpret signs positively or negatively depending on whether the subject has high or low social status.[39]

Approaches

There are three approaches to graphology: the integrative approach, the holistic approach, and the symbolic

Integrative graphology
This approach holds that specific stroke structures relate to personality traits. Most systems within this approach use a cluster of stroke formations, to score a specific personality trait. Systems that fall under this umbrella are: fixed signs, trait stroke, French System and Graphoanalysis. It has been described as starting from the inside, and working to the outside.
Holistic graphology
This is commonly, but incorrectly referred to as Gestalt Graphology. Gestalt graphology was a system of handwriting analysis developed circa 1915 in Germany and was related theoretically to Gestalt psychology. In this approach (Holistic Graphology) a profile is constructed on the basis of form, movement and space. It has been described as starting from the outside, and working to the inside. In this approach, individual traits, such as legibility, are not assigned specific meanings, but can take on different meanings depending on the overall context.
Symbolic analysis
In this approach, one looks for symbols seen in the handwriting. This can be either Major symbolism, or Minor Symbolism.
  • Major symbolism is the meaning ascribed to the stroke, as it related to the page.
  • Minor symbolism ascribes a meaning to the stroke, depending upon the picture that the stroke draws. For example, John Wayne's signature shows a blackened out portion, that represents his stomach cancer.
This approach provides the theory that underlies both Holistic Graphology, and Integrative Graphology. Max Pulver[40][41][42][43] is the best known exponent of this system.

Systems of handwriting analysis

Each approach to handwriting analysis has spawned several different systems.

  • Integrative graphology

FOur academic institutions around the world currently offer an accredited degree in handwriting analysis:


Writing systems

The majority of material in the field is oriented towards the Latin writing system. Courses offered in the subject reflect that bias.

Vocabulary

Every system of handwriting analysis has its own vocabulary. Even though two or more systems may share the same words, the meanings of those words may be different. The technical meaning of a word used by a handwriting analyst, and the common meaning is not congruent. Resentment, for example, in common usage, means to feel or exhibit annoyance. In Graphoanalysis, the term indicates a fear of imposition.[69][70]

In Hungary

A report by the Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information says that handwriting analysis without informed consent is a privacy violation.[71]

In the United States

Privacy

Graphologists often claim that handwriting analysis in the workplace is legal,[72] erroneously citing one or more of the following cases:

  • Gilbert v California :388 US 263-267 (1967)
  • U.S. v. Dionisio :410 US 1 (1973) 1973, Lawyers Edition, Second Series 35, 67; 93 SC 774
  • U.S. v. Mara aka Marasovich :410 US 19 (1973)
  • U.S. v Rosinsky :547 F 2nd 249 (CA 4th 1977 )
  • United States v. Wade :388 US 218, 221-223 (1967)

All of these cases are about Fifth Amendment rights in a criminal investigation. These cases do not address issues relating to psychological analysis of an individual nor do they address third-party issues.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Many graphologists claim [weasel words] that handwriting analysis is non-discriminatory, since it cannot determine gender, age, ethnicity, or other Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) Protected Classes.[73] However, thus far, there have been no studies demonstrating that the use of handwriting analysis in employment does not have a disparate impact upon EEOC-protected classes.

There have been a number of studies on gender and handwriting.[74][75][76][77] Uniformly the research indicates that gender can be determined at a significant level. The published studies on ethnicity,[78][79][80] race,[81][82][83] age,[84][85][86] nationality,[87] gender orientation, weight, and their relationship to handwriting have had mixed results.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

One of the rules of thumb in human resources[citation needed] is that if an individual who has an ADA-defined disability cannot take a test, then nobody can. As a result, tests that cannot be adapted for use by those individuals will not be used by a company.

Handwriting clearly falls into the group of tests that cannot be adapted to be administered to individuals who fall within one or more ADA-defined disabilities. Blind people, for example, do not develop the required fluency in handwriting, for the writing to be correctly analyzed.

Questions that handwriting analysts ask before doing an analysis can be illegal under this act.[88]

Graphology in court testimony

In Carroll v. State [276 Ark 160; 634 SW 2d 99, 101-102 (1982)] the opposing handwriting analysts showed unprofessionalism.[38]

Applications

Employment profiling

A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and proceeds to do a personality profile, matching the congruency of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position.[89]

A graphological report is meant to be used in conjunction with other tools, such as comprehensive background checks, practical demonstration or record of work skills. Graphology supporters state that it can complement but not replace traditional hiring tools.

Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure[90] to guarded success.[91] The most substantial reason for not using handwriting analysis in the employment process is the absence of evidence of a direct link between handwriting analysis and various measures of job performance.[92]

The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical grounds[93] and on legal grounds in the United States.[94]

Psychological analysis

Graphology has been used clinically by European counselors and psychotherapists.[95][96][97][98] When it is used, it is generally used alongside other projective personality assessment tools, and not in isolation. It is often used within individual psychotherapy, marital counseling, or vocational counseling.[99]

Marital Compatibility

In its simplest form only sexual expression and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual(s) within the relationship.[100] The theory is that after knowing and understanding how each individual in the relationship differs from every other individual in the relationship, the resulting marriage will be more enduring.[101]

Medical diagnosis

Medical graphology is probably the most controversial branch of handwriting analysis.[102] Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this article but an examination of factors pertaining to motor control. Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, pressure, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents.[103] The study of these phenomena is a by-product of researchers investigating motor control processes and the interaction of nervous, anatomical, and biomechanical systems of the body.

The Vanguard Code of Ethical Practice, amongst others, prohibits medical diagnosis by those not licensed to do diagnosis in the state in which they practice.

Graphotherapy

This is the practice of changing a person's handwriting with the goal of changing features of his or her personality. It originated in France during the 1930s, spreading to the United States in the late 1950s.[104][105]

The therapy consists of a series of exercises which are similar to those taught in basic calligraphy courses, sometimes in conjunction with music or positive self-talk.

Jury Screening

A graphologist is given handwriting samples of a prospective jury and determines who should be struck, based on their alleged personality profile. After the trial has begun, the graphologist advises counsel on how to slant their case, for the most favorable response from the jury.[106]

See also

Systems of handwriting analysis

Graphologists

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