Rhoticity in English: Difference between revisions
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{{For|the quality of realization of English phoneme /r/ among dialects|Pronunciation of English /r/}} |
{{For|the quality of realization of English phoneme /r/ among dialects|Pronunciation of English /r/}} |
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{{English phonology topics}} |
{{English phonology topics}} |
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'''Rhoticity in English''' refers to the situations in which English speakers pronounce the historical [[rhotic consonant]] {{IPA|/r/}}, and is one of the most prominent distinctions by which varieties of English can be classified. The [[Scottish English|English dialects of Scotland]], [[Irish English|Ireland]], and most of the [[American English|United States]] and [[Canadian English|Canada]] preserve historical {{IPA|/r/}}, and are thus termed the '''rhotic varieties'''. The '''non-rhotic varieties''', in which historical {{IPA|/r/}} |
'''Rhoticity in English''' refers to the situations in which English speakers pronounce the historical [[rhotic consonant]] {{IPA|/r/}}, and a presence or absence of rhoticity is one of the most prominent distinctions by which varieties of English can be classified. The [[Scottish English|English dialects of Scotland]], [[Irish English|Ireland]], and most of the [[American English|United States]] and [[Canadian English|Canada]] preserve historical {{IPA|/r/}}, and are thus termed the '''rhotic varieties'''. The '''non-rhotic varieties''', in which historical {{IPA|/r/}} is not pronounced, except before vowels, include all the dialects of [[England]]{{mdash}}except the [[South West England|South West]], the southern [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]], and parts of [[West Lancashire]]{{mdash}}as well as the [[Australian English|English dialects of Australia]], [[New Zealand English|New Zealand]], [[South African English|South Africa]], and some parts of the southern and eastern coastal United States. |
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In non-rhotic varieties, speakers no longer pronounce {{IPA|/r/}} in [[postvocalic]] environments – that is, when it is immediately after a vowel and not followed by another vowel.<ref>Paul Skandera, Peter Burleigh, ''A Manual of English Phonetics and Phonology'', Gunter Narr Verlag, 2011, p. 60.</ref>{{sfnp|Lass|1999|p=114}} For example, a rhotic English speaker pronounces the words ''hard'' and ''butter'' as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɑɹ|d}} and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ʌ|t|əɹ}}, whereas a non-rhotic speaker "drops" or "deletes" the {{IPA|/r/}} sound, pronouncing them as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɑː|d}} and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ʌ|t|ə}}. A non-rhotic speaker usually still pronounces the {{IPA|/r/}} in the continuously spoken phrase "butte''r a''nd jam" (the [[linking R]]), since in this case the {{IPA|/r/}} is followed by a vowel. |
In non-rhotic varieties, speakers no longer pronounce {{IPA|/r/}} in [[postvocalic]] environments – that is, when it is immediately after a vowel and not followed by another vowel.<ref>Paul Skandera, Peter Burleigh, ''A Manual of English Phonetics and Phonology'', Gunter Narr Verlag, 2011, p. 60.</ref>{{sfnp|Lass|1999|p=114}} For example, a rhotic English speaker pronounces the words ''hard'' and ''butter'' as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɑɹ|d}} and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ʌ|t|əɹ}}, whereas a non-rhotic speaker "drops" or "deletes" the {{IPA|/r/}} sound, pronouncing them as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɑː|d}} and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ʌ|t|ə}}. A non-rhotic speaker usually still pronounces the {{IPA|/r/}} in the continuously spoken phrase "butte''r a''nd jam" (the [[linking R]]), since in this case the {{IPA|/r/}} is followed by a vowel. |
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Loss of postvocalic {{IPA|/r/}} began sporadically in informal |
Loss of postvocalic {{IPA|/r/}} began sporadically in informal English of the 1400s, and by the 1600s postvocalic {{IPA|/r/}} was weakened{{clarification needed}} but still universally present. In the mid-1700s it was still pronounced in most environments, but may occasionally have been deleted entirely, especially after low vowels. By the late 1700s, non-rhotic pronunciation had become common in London and surrounding areas, and was being increasingly used even in more formal and educated speech. By the early 1800s, the [[Received Pronunciation|southern British standard]] was fully transformed into a non-rhotic variety, though some variation persisted as late as the 1870s. This loss of postvocalic {{IPA|/r/}} in British English influenced port cities of the United States with close connections to Britain, causing upper-class pronunciation in many eastern and southern American port cities to become non-rhotic. Non-rhotic pronunciation continued to influence American [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige speech]], though the [[American Civil War]] of the 1860s began to shift America's centers of wealth and political power to rhotic areas with fewer cultural connections to the old colonial and British elites. The advent of [[radio]] and [[television]] in the early 1900s, established a [[General American|national standard]] of American pronunciation, particularly right after World War II, which became a rhotic variety that fully preserved historical {{IPA|/r/}}. |
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Other terms for "rhotic" |
Other terms for "rhotic" varieties include '''{{IPA|/r/}}–pronouncing''' or '''''r''–ful''',{{sfnp|Lass|1999|p=114}}<ref name="Labov, Ash, and Boberg 2006: 47">Labov, Ash, and Boberg (2006): 47.</ref> and for "non-rhotic" include '''{{IPA|/r/}}-deleting''',{{sfnp|Lass|1999|p=114}} '''r-dropping''',{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=216}} '''''r''-vocalized''', or '''''r''–less'''.<ref name="Labov, Ash, and Boberg 2006: 47"/> |
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== History == |
== History == |
Revision as of 13:58, 10 June 2017
History and description of |
English pronunciation |
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Historical stages |
General development |
Development of vowels |
Development of consonants |
Variable features |
Related topics |
Rhoticity in English refers to the situations in which English speakers pronounce the historical rhotic consonant /r/, and a presence or absence of rhoticity is one of the most prominent distinctions by which varieties of English can be classified. The English dialects of Scotland, Ireland, and most of the United States and Canada preserve historical /r/, and are thus termed the rhotic varieties. The non-rhotic varieties, in which historical /r/ is not pronounced, except before vowels, include all the dialects of England—except the South West, the southern West Midlands, and parts of West Lancashire—as well as the English dialects of Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and some parts of the southern and eastern coastal United States.
In non-rhotic varieties, speakers no longer pronounce /r/ in postvocalic environments – that is, when it is immediately after a vowel and not followed by another vowel.[1][2] For example, a rhotic English speaker pronounces the words hard and butter as /ˈhɑːrd/ and /ˈbʌtər/, whereas a non-rhotic speaker "drops" or "deletes" the /r/ sound, pronouncing them as /ˈhɑːd/ and /ˈbʌtə/. A non-rhotic speaker usually still pronounces the /r/ in the continuously spoken phrase "butter and jam" (the linking R), since in this case the /r/ is followed by a vowel.
Loss of postvocalic /r/ began sporadically in informal English of the 1400s, and by the 1600s postvocalic /r/ was weakened[clarification needed] but still universally present. In the mid-1700s it was still pronounced in most environments, but may occasionally have been deleted entirely, especially after low vowels. By the late 1700s, non-rhotic pronunciation had become common in London and surrounding areas, and was being increasingly used even in more formal and educated speech. By the early 1800s, the southern British standard was fully transformed into a non-rhotic variety, though some variation persisted as late as the 1870s. This loss of postvocalic /r/ in British English influenced port cities of the United States with close connections to Britain, causing upper-class pronunciation in many eastern and southern American port cities to become non-rhotic. Non-rhotic pronunciation continued to influence American prestige speech, though the American Civil War of the 1860s began to shift America's centers of wealth and political power to rhotic areas with fewer cultural connections to the old colonial and British elites. The advent of radio and television in the early 1900s, established a national standard of American pronunciation, particularly right after World War II, which became a rhotic variety that fully preserved historical /r/.
Other terms for "rhotic" varieties include /r/–pronouncing or r–ful,[2][3] and for "non-rhotic" include /r/-deleting,[2] r-dropping,[4] r-vocalized, or r–less.[3]
History
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RhoticEngland.png/200px-RhoticEngland.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/RhoticEngland2.png/200px-RhoticEngland2.png)
The earliest traces of a loss of /r/ in English appear in the early 15th century and occur before coronal consonants, especially /s/, giving modern "ass (buttocks)" (Old English ears, Middle English ers or ars), and "bass (fish)" (OE bærs, ME bars).[2] A second phase of /r/-loss began during the 15th century, and was characterized by sporadic and lexically variable deletion, such as monyng "morning" and cadenall "cardinal".[2] These /r/-less spellings appear throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, but are uncommon and are restricted to private documents, especially ones written by women.[2] No English authorities describe loss of /r/ in the standard language prior to the mid-18th century, and many do not fully accept it until the 1790s.[2]
During the mid-17th century, a number of sources describe /r/ as being weakened but still present.[2] The English playwright Ben Jonson's English Grammar, published posthumously in 1640, records that /r/ was "sounded firme in the beginning of words, and more liquid in the middle, and ends."[5] Little more is said regarding /r/ until 1740, when one Mather Flint, writing in a primer for French learners of English, said: "...dans plusieurs mots, l’r devant une consonne est fort adouci, presque muet & rend un peu longue la voyale qui le precede." ("...in many words r before a consonant is greatly softened, almost mute, and slightly lengthens the preceding vowel.")[5] By the 1770s, postvocalic /r/-less pronunciation was becoming common around London even in more formal, educated speech. The English actor and linguist John Walker uses the spelling ar to indicate the long vowel of aunt in his 1775 rhyming dictionary.[3] In his influential Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language (1791), Walker reported, with a strong tone of disapproval, that "...the r in lard, bard, [...] is pronounced so much in the throat as to be little more than the middle or Italian a, lengthened into baa, baad...."[5] Americans returning to England after the end of the American Revolutionary War in 1783 reported surprise at the significant changes in fashionable pronunciation.[6] By the early 19th century, the southern British standard was fully transformed into a non-rhotic variety, though it continued to be variable as late as the 1870s.[5]
The adoption of postvocalic /r/-less pronunciation as the British prestige standard in the late 18th and early 19th centuries influenced American port cities with close connections to Britain, causing upper-class pronunciation in many eastern and southern port cities such as New York City, Boston, Alexandria, Charleston, and Savannah to become non-rhotic.[7] Like regional dialects in England, the accents of other areas in America remained rhotic in a display of linguistic "lag" that preserved the original pronunciation of /r/.[7] Non-rhotic pronunciation continued to influence American prestige speech until the 1860s, when the American Civil War shifted America's centers of wealth and political power to areas with fewer cultural connections to the British elite.[8] Labov et al report that non-rhotic remained the prestige speech until World War II.[9]
Modern pronunciation
In most non-rhotic accents, if a word ending in written "r" is followed closely by a word beginning with a vowel, the /r/ is pronounced—as in water ice. This phenomenon is referred to as "linking R". Many non-rhotic speakers also insert an epenthetic /r/ between vowels when the first vowel is one that can occur before syllable-final r (drawring for drawing). This so-called "intrusive R" has been stigmatized, but nowadays many speakers of Received Pronunciation (RP) frequently "intrude" an epenthetic /r/ at word boundaries, especially where one or both vowels is schwa; for example the idea of it becomes the idea-r-of it, Australia and New Zealand becomes Australia-r-and New Zealand, the formerly well-known India-r-Office and "Laura Norder" (Law and Order). The typical alternative used by RP speakers (and some rhotic speakers as well) is to insert a glottal stop where an intrusive R would otherwise be placed.[10][11]
For non-rhotic speakers, what was historically a vowel plus /r/ is now usually realized as a long vowel. This is called compensatory lengthening, lengthening that occurs after the elision of a sound. So in RP and many other non-rhotic accents card, fern, born are pronounced [kʰɑːd], [fɜːn], [bɔːn] or similar (actual pronunciations vary from accent to accent). This length may be retained in phrases, so while car pronounced in isolation is [kʰɑː], car owner is [ˈkʰɑːɹəʊnə]. But a final schwa usually remains short, so water in isolation is [wɔːtʰə]. In RP and similar accents the vowels /iː/ and /uː/ (or /ʊ/), when followed by r, become diphthongs ending in schwa, so near is [nɪə] and poor is [pʰʊə], though these have other realizations as well, including monophthongal ones; once again, the pronunciations vary from accent to accent. The same happens to diphthongs followed by R, though these may be considered to end in /ər/ in rhotic speech, and it is the /ər/ that reduces to schwa as usual in non-rhotic speech: tire said in isolation is [tʰaɪə] and sour is [saʊə].[12] For some speakers, some long vowels alternate with a diphthong ending in schwa, so wear may be [wɛə] but wearing [wɛːɹɪŋ].
Even General American speakers commonly drop the /r/ in non-final unstressed syllables when another syllable in the same word also contains /r/; this may be referred to as R-dissimilation. Examples include the dropping of the first /r/ in the words surprise, governor and caterpillar. In more careful speech, however, the /r/ sounds are all retained.[13]
Distribution
GREEN – [ə] (non-rhotic)
YELLOW – [əʴ] (alveolar)
ORANGE – [əʵ] (retroflex)
PINK – [əʵː] (retroflex & long)
BLUE – [əʶ] (uvular)
VIOLET – [ɔʶ] (back & rounded)
Rhotic accents include Scottish English, Irish or Hiberno-English, most varieties of North American English, Barbadian English, Indian English,[15] and Pakistani English.[16]
Non-rhotic accents include most English English, Welsh English, New Zealand English, Australian English, and South African English.
Semi-rhotic accents have also been studied, such as Jamaican English, in which r is pronounced (as in even non-rhotic accents) before vowels, but also in stressed monosyllables or stressed syllables at the ends of words (e.g. in "car" or "dare"); however, it is not pronounced at the end of unstressed syllables (e.g. in "water") or before consonants (e.g. "market").[17]
Variably rhotic accents, in which speakers often sporadically waver between rhoticity and non-rhoticity without any particular rules of context, are also widely documented. Variably rhotic accents comprise much of Caribbean English, for example, as spoken in Tobago, Guyana, Antigua and Barbuda, and the Bahamas.[18] They also include current-day New York City English,[19] New York Latino English, and some Boston English.
Non-rhotic accents in the Americas include the rest of Caribbean and Belize.
England
Though most English varieties in England are non-rhotic today, stemming from a trend towards this in southeastern England accelerating in the very late 18th century onwards, rhotic accents are still found in the West Country (south and west of a line from near Shrewsbury to around Portsmouth), the Corby area, some of Lancashire (north and west of the centre of Manchester), some parts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, and in the areas that border Scotland. The prestige form, however, exerts a steady pressure towards non-rhoticity. Thus the urban speech of Bristol or Southampton is more accurately described as variably rhotic, the degree of rhoticity being reduced as one moves up the class and formality scales.[20]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Non-RhoticityUSA.png/220px-Non-RhoticityUSA.png)
United States
American English is predominantly rhotic today, but at the end of the 19th century non-rhotic accents were common throughout much of the Eastern U.S. and through much of the South along the Gulf Coast. This trend reversed during the mid-20th century. Non-rhotic pronunciations have increasingly been perceived by Americans as sounding foreign or less educated with rhotic accents increasingly seen as sounding more "General American".[21]
Today, non-rhoticity in the American South is found primarily among older speakers, and only in some areas such as central and southern Alabama; Savannah, Georgia; and Norfolk, Virginia,[22] as well as in the Yat accent of New Orleans. The local dialects of eastern New England, especially Boston, Massachusetts, extending into the states of Maine and New Hampshire, are largely non-rhotic, as well as the traditional Rhode Island dialect; however, this feature has recently been receding. The New York City dialect is traditionally non-rhotic, though William Labov more precisely classifies its current form as variably rhotic,[23] with many of its sub-varieties now fully rhotic, such as in northeastern New Jersey.
African American Vernacular English (AAVE for short) is largely non-rhotic, and in some non-rhotic Southern and AAVE accents, there is no linking r, that is, /r/ at the end of a word is deleted even when the following word starts with a vowel, so that "Mister Adams" is pronounced [mɪstə(ʔ)ˈædəmz].[24] In a few such accents, intervocalic /r/ is deleted before an unstressed syllable even within a word when the following syllable begins with a vowel. In such accents, pronunciations like [kæəˈlaːnə] for Carolina, or [bɛːˈʌp] for "bear up" are heard.[25] This pronunciation also occurs in AAVE.[26] This also occurred for many older non-rhotic Southern speakers.[27]
Typically, even non-rhotic modern American English varieties do pronounce the /r/ in /ɜːr/ (as in "bird," "work," or "perky"), realizing it, as in most of the U.S., as [ɝ] or [ɚ] .
Canada
Canadian English is entirely rhotic except for small isolated areas in southwestern New Brunswick, parts of Newfoundland, and the Lunenburg English variety spoken in Lunenburg and Shelburne Counties, Nova Scotia, which may be non-rhotic or variably rhotic.[28]
New Zealand
Although New Zealand English is predominantly non-rhotic, Southland and parts of Otago in the far south of New Zealand's South Island are rhotic from apparent Scottish influence. Some Māori speakers are semi-rhotic although it is not clearly identified to any particular region or attributed to any defined language shift. The Māori accent varies from the European-origin New Zealand accent.
Asia
The English spoken in Asia is predominantly rhotic. Many varieties of Indian English are rhotic owing to the underlying phonotactics of the native Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages[15] whilst some tend to be non-rhotic. In the case of the Philippines, this may be explained because the English that is spoken there is heavily influenced by the American dialect. In addition, many East Asians (in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan) who have a good command of English generally have rhotic accents because of the influence of American English. This excludes Hong Kong, whose RP English dialect is a result of its almost 150-year-history as a British Crown colony (later British dependent territory). The lack of consonant /r/ in Cantonese also contribute to the phenomenon (although rhoticity started to exist due to the handover in 1997 and influence by US and East Asian entertainment industry). However, many older (and younger) speakers among South and East Asians speak non-rhotic.
Other Asian regions with non-rhotic English are Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei.[citation needed] A typical Malaysian's English would be almost totally non-rhotic due to the nonexistence of rhotic endings in both languages of influence, whereas a more educated Malaysian's English may be non-rhotic due to Standard Malaysian English being based on RP (Received Pronunciation).
A typical teenager's Southeast Asian English would be rhotic, mainly because of prominent influence by American English. Spoken English in Myanmar is non-rhotic, but there are a number of English speakers with a rhotic or partially rhotic pronunciation. Sri Lankan English may be rhotic.
Africa
The English spoken in Africa (excluding South Africa) is based on British RP and is officially non-rhotic. Pronunciation and variation in African English accents are largely affected by native African language influences, level of education and exposure to western influences. The English accents spoken in the coastal areas of West Africa is primarily non-rhotic as are the underlying varieties of Niger-Congo languages spoken in that part of West Africa. Rhoticity may be present in English spoken in areas where rhotic Afro-Asiatic or Nilo Saharan languages are spoken across northern West Africa and in the Nilotic regions of East Africa. More modern trends show an increasing African American influence on African English pronunciation particularly among younger urban affluent populations, where the American rhotic 'r' may be over-stressed in informal communication to create a pseudo-Americanised accent. By and large official spoken English used in post colonial African countries is non-rhotic. Standard Liberian English is also non-rhotic because liquids are lost at the end of words or before consonants.[29]
Mergers characteristic of non-rhotic accents
Some phonemic mergers are characteristic of non-rhotic accents. These usually include one item that historically contained an R (lost in the non-rhotic accent), and one that never did so. The section below lists mergers in order of approximately decreasing prevalence.
- Panda–pander merger
In the terminology of John C. Wells, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets commA and lettER. It is found in all or nearly all non-rhotic accents,[30] and is even present in some accents that are in other respects rhotic, such as those of some speakers in Jamaica and the Bahamas.[30]
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- Father–farther merger
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- Pawn–porn merger
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- Caught–court merger
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- Calve–carve merger
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- Paw–poor merger
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- Batted–battered merger
This merger is present in non-rhotic accents which have undergone the weak-vowel merger. Such accents include Australian, New Zealand, most South African speech, and some non-rhotic English speech (e.g. Norfolk, Sheffield).
A large number of homophonous pairs involve the syllabic -es and agentive -ers suffixes, such as merges-mergers and bleaches-bleachers. Because there are so many, they are excluded from the list of homophonous pairs below.
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- Dough–door merger
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- Show–sure merger
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- Often–orphan merger
Homophonous pairs |
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- God–guard merger
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- Shot–short merger
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- Bud–bird merger
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- Other mergers
In some accents, syllabification may interact with rhoticity, resulting in homophones where non-rhotic accents have centering diphthongs. Possibilities include Korea–career,[43] Shi'a–sheer, and Maia–mire,[44] while skua may be identical with the second syllable of obscure.[45]
Effect on spelling
Template:ChineseText Template:Contains Indic text Template:KoreanText Template:Contains Urdu text Spellings based on non-rhotic pronunciation of dialectal or foreign words can result in mispronunciations if read by rhotic speakers. Examples include:
- Er, to indicate a filled pause, as a British spelling of what US-Americans would render uh.
- The Korean family name 박 (Bak/Pak) usually written "Park" in English.
- The game Parcheesi.
- British English slang words:
- char for cha from the Mandarin Chinese pronunciation of 茶 (= "tea" (the drink))
- In Rudyard Kipling's books:
- Burma and Myanmar for Burmese [bəmà] and [mjàmmà].
- Transliteration of Cantonese words and names, such as char siu (Chinese: 叉燒; Jyutping: caa¹ siu¹) and Wong Kar-wai (Chinese: 王家衛; Jyutping: Wong⁴ Gaa1wai⁶)
- The spelling of schoolmarm for school ma'am.
- The slang word nark for "informant", from Romany language nāk "nose".
See also
References
Footnotes
- ^ Paul Skandera, Peter Burleigh, A Manual of English Phonetics and Phonology, Gunter Narr Verlag, 2011, p. 60.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lass (1999), p. 114.
- ^ a b c Labov, Ash, and Boberg (2006): 47.
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 216. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWells1982 (help)
- ^ a b c d Lass (1999), p. 115.
- ^ Fisher (2001), p. 73.
- ^ a b Fisher (2001), p. 76.
- ^ Fisher (2001), p. 77.
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), chpt 7
- ^ Wells, Accents of English, 1:224-225.
- ^ Gimson, Alfred Charles (2014), Cruttenden, Alan (ed.), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, pp. 119–120, ISBN 978-1-4441-8309-2
- ^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
- ^ Wells, Accents of English, p. 490.
- ^ Wakelyn, Martin: "Rural dialects in England", in: Trudgill, Peter (1984): Language in the British Isles, p.77
- ^ a b Wells, J. C. (1982). Accents of English 3: Beyond the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 629. ISBN 0-521-28541-0.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ Wells, Accents of English, pp. 76, 221
- ^ Schneider, Edgar (2008). Varieties of English: The Americas and the Caribbean. Walter de Gruyter. p. 396.
- ^ McClear, Sheila (2 June 2010). "Why the classic Noo Yawk accent is fading away". New York Post. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
- ^ Trudgill, Peter (1984). Language in the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28409-7.
- ^ Milla, Robert McColl (2012). English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-7486-4181-9.
- ^ Labov, Ash, and Boberg, 2006: pp. 47–48.
- ^ Trudgill, Peter (2010). Investigations in Sociohistorical Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Gick, Bryan. 1999. A gesture-based account of intrusive consonants in English. Phonology 16: 1, pp. 29–54. (pdf). Retrieved 12 November 2010.
- ^ Harris 2006: pp. 2–5.
- ^ Pollock et al., 1998.
- ^ http://www.atlas.mouton-content.com/secure/generalmodules/varieties/unit0000/virtualsession/vslessons/thomas.pdf] p. 16
- ^ Trudgill, Peter (2000). "Sociohistorical linguistics and dialect survival: a note on another Nova Scotian enclave". In Magnus Leung, ed. (ed.). Language Structure and Variation. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International. p. 197.
{{cite book}}
:|editor=
has generic name (help) - ^ Brinton, Lauren and Leslie Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford University Press: Canada, 2006
- ^ a b c d e f Wells (1982)
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 235
- ^ Wells, p. 287
- ^ Wells, p. 524
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 503
- ^ Dialectal variant of "horse"
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 504
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 544
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 577
- ^ Wells, p. 520
- ^ Dillard, Joey Lee (1980). Perspectives on American English. The Hague; New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 53. ISBN 90-279-3367-7.
- ^ Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22919-7., pp. 136–37, 203–6, 234, 245–47, 339–40, 400, 419, 443, 576
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 508-509
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 225
- ^ Upton, Clive; Eben Upton (2004). Oxford rhyming dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-19-280115-5.
- ^ Upton, Clive; Eben Upton (2004). Oxford rhyming dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 60. ISBN 0-19-280115-5.
Works cited
- Fisher, John Hurt (2001). "British and American, Continuity and Divergence". In Algeo, John (ed.). The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume VI: English in North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 59–85.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016746-8.
- Lass, Roger (1999). "Phonology and Morphology". In Lass, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III: 1476–1776. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 56–186. ISBN 0-521-26476-6.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Pollock, Bailey, Berni, Fletcher, Hinton, Johnson, Roberts, & Weaver (17 March 2001). "Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)". Retrieved 8 November 2016.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Trudgill, Peter (1984). Language in the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Wells, J. C. (1982). Accents of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help)