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{{redirect|Douglas-fir|the genus and the other species with common names containing "Douglas fir" or "Douglas-fir"|Pseudotsuga|the ship|Oregon Pine (schooner)}}
{{redirect|Douglas-fir|the genus and the other species with common names containing "Douglas fir" or "Douglas-fir"|Pseudotsuga|the ship|Oregon Pine (schooner)}}
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The '''Douglas fir''' (''Pseudotsuga menziesii''), also known as '''Douglas-fir''', and '''Oregon pine''', is an [[evergreen]] [[conifer]] [[species]] [[native plant|native]] to western [[North America]]. One variety, the [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii|coast Douglas fir]], grows along the Pacific Ocean from central [[British Columbia]] south to central [[California]]. A second variety, the [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca|Rocky Mountain Douglas fir]], grows in the [[Rocky Mountains]] from British Columbia south to [[Mexico]]. The tree is dominant in western [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and [[Oregon (state)|Oregon]]. It is extensively used for timber, worldwide.
'''''Pseudotsuga menziesii''''' is an [[evergreen]] [[conifer]] [[species]] of the ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'' genus from the ''[[Pinaceae]]'' family. It is [[native plant|native]] to western [[North America]] and is known by the common names '''Douglas-fir''', '''Oregon pine''' and '''Columbian Pine'''. There are two varieties: ''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii]]'' or '''coast Douglas-fir''', and ''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca]]'' or '''Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir'''.


== Naming ==
== Naming ==
The common name honors [[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]], a Scottish botanist and collector who first reported the extraordinary nature and potential of the species. The common name is misleading since it is not a true fir, i.e., not a member of the genus ''[[Abies]]''. For this reason the name is often written as '''Douglas-fir''' (a name also used for the genus ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'' as a whole).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oregonstate.edu/trees/conifer_genera/douglas_fir.html |title=Douglas-fir (''Pseudotsuga'') |work=Common Trees of the Pacific Northwest |publisher=Oregon State University |accessdate=March 28, 2013}}</ref>
The common name honors [[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]], a Scottish botanist and collector who first reported the extraordinary nature and potential of the species. The common name is misleading since it is not a true fir, i.e., not a member of the genus ''[[Abies]]''. For this reason the name is often written as '''Douglas-fir''' (a name also used for the genus ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'' as a whole).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oregonstate.edu/trees/conifer_genera/douglas_fir.html |title=Douglas-fir (''Pseudotsuga'') |work=Common Trees of the Pacific Northwest |publisher=Oregon State University |accessdate=March 28, 2013}}</ref>


The specific epithet, ''menziesii'', is after [[Archibald Menzies]], a Scottish physician and rival [[Natural history|naturalist]] to [[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]]. Menzies first documented the tree on [[Vancouver Island]] in 1791. Colloquially, the species is also known simply as '''Doug-fir''' or as '''Douglas pine''' (although the latter common name may also refer to ''[[Pinus douglasiana]]'').
The specific epithet, ''menziesii'', is after [[Archibald Menzies]], a Scottish physician and rival [[Natural history|naturalist]] to [[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]]. Menzies first documented the tree on [[Vancouver Island]] in 1791. Colloquially, the species is also known simply as '''Doug-fir''' or as '''Douglas pine''' (although the latter common name may also refer to ''[[Pinus douglasiana]]''). Other common names are '''Oregon Pine''' and '''Columbian Pine'''.


One [[Coast Salish]] name for the tree, used in the [[Halkomelem]] language, is {{lang|hur|lá:yelhp|italic=yes}}.<ref>Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem, Volume I, pp. 213. Galloway, Brent Douglas.</ref>
One [[Coast Salish]] name for the tree, used in the [[Halkomelem]] language, is {{lang|hur|lá:yelhp|italic=yes}}.<ref>Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem, Volume I, pp. 213. Galloway, Brent Douglas.</ref>


==Description==
==Description==
Douglas firs are medium-size to extremely large [[evergreen]] [[tree]]s, {{convert|20|-|100|m|-1}} tall (although only coast Douglas firs reach such great heights).<ref>{{cite book|title=Forest Giants of the World Past and Present|first=Al|last=Carder|year=1995|pages=3–4}}</ref> The [[leaf|leaves]] are flat, soft, linear, {{convert|2|-|4|cm|in|frac=4}} long, generally resembling those of the firs, occurring singly rather than in [[fascicle (botany)|fascicle]]s; they completely encircle the branches, which can be useful in recognizing the species. As the trees grow taller in denser forest, they lose their lower branches, such that the foliage may start high off the ground. Douglas firs in environments with more light may have branches much closer to the ground.
Douglas-firs are medium-size to extremely large [[evergreen]] [[tree]]s, {{convert|20|-|100|m|-1}} tall (although only coast Douglas-firs reach such great heights).<ref>{{cite book|title=Forest Giants of the World Past and Present|first=Al|last=Carder|year=1995|pages=3–4}}</ref> The [[leaf|leaves]] are flat, soft, linear, {{convert|2|-|4|cm|in|frac=4}} long, generally resembling those of the firs, occurring singly rather than in [[fascicle (botany)|fascicle]]s; they completely encircle the branches, which can be useful in recognizing the species. As the trees grow taller in denser forest, they lose their lower branches, such that the foliage may start high off the ground. Douglas-firs in environments with more light may have branches much closer to the ground.


The female [[Conifer cone|cones]] are pendulous, with persistent scales unlike true firs. They are distinctive in having a long tridentine (three-pointed) [[bract]] that protrudes prominently above each scale (it resembles the back half of a mouse, with two feet and a tail).
The female [[Conifer cone|cones]] are pendulous, with persistent scales unlike true firs. They are distinctive in having a long tridentine (three-pointed) [[bract]] that protrudes prominently above each scale (it resembles the back half of a mouse, with two feet and a tail).


== Distribution ==
== Distribution ==
One [[Variety (botany)|variety]], [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii|coast Douglas fir]] (''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''menziesii''), grows in the coastal regions, from west-central [[British Columbia]] southward to central [[California]]. In [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]], its range is continuous from the eastern edge of the [[Cascade Range|Cascades]] west to the [[Pacific Coast Ranges]] and Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in the [[Klamath Mountains|Klamath]] and [[California Coast Ranges]] as far south as the [[Santa Lucia Range]], with a small stand as far south as the [[Purisima Hills]] in Santa Barbara County.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A New Douglas-Fir Locality in Southern California |author=James R. Griffin |journal=Forest Science |date=September 1964 |pages=317–319 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/saf/fs/1964/00000010/00000003/art00015 |accessdate=December 31, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Distribution of Forest Trees in California USDA Forest Service Research Paper PSW – 82/1972 |author=James R. Griffin |author2=William B. Critchfield |year=1976 |publisher=USDA Forest Service |location=Berkeley, California |pages=114 |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_rp082/psw_rp082.pdf |accessdate=2015-05-03 }}</ref> In the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]], it ranges as far south as the [[Yosemite Valley|Yosemite]] region. It occurs from near sea level along the coast to {{convert|1800|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level in the mountains of California.
''Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii'', also known as 'coast Douglas-fir', grows in the coastal regions from west-central [[British Columbia]] southward to central [[California]]. In [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]], its range is continuous from the eastern edge of the [[Cascade Range|Cascades]] west to the [[Pacific Coast Ranges]] and Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in the [[Klamath Mountains|Klamath]] and [[California Coast Ranges]] as far south as the [[Santa Lucia Range]], with a small stand as far south as the [[Purisima Hills]] in Santa Barbara County.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A New Douglas-Fir Locality in Southern California |author=James R. Griffin |journal=Forest Science |date=September 1964 |pages=317–319 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/saf/fs/1964/00000010/00000003/art00015 |accessdate=December 31, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Distribution of Forest Trees in California USDA Forest Service Research Paper PSW – 82/1972 |author=James R. Griffin |author2=William B. Critchfield |year=1976 |publisher=USDA Forest Service |location=Berkeley, California |pages=114 |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_rp082/psw_rp082.pdf |accessdate=2015-05-03 }}</ref> In the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]], it ranges as far south as the [[Yosemite Valley|Yosemite]] region. It occurs from near sea level along the coast to {{convert|1800|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level in the mountains of California.


Further inland, coast Douglas fir is replaced by another variety, [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca|Rocky Mountain or interior Douglas fir]] (''P.&nbsp;menziesii'' var. ''glauca''). Interior Douglas fir intergrades with coast Douglas fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia, and from there ranges northward to central British Columbia and southeastward to the Mexican border, becoming increasingly disjunct as latitude decreases and altitude increases. [[Pseudotsuga lindleyana|Mexican Douglas fir]] (''P.&nbsp;lindleyana''), which ranges as far south as [[Oaxaca]], is often considered a variety of ''P. menziesii''.
Another variety exists further inland, ''Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca'', also known as 'Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir' or 'Interior Douglas-fir'. Interior Douglas-fir intergrades with coast Douglas-fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia, and from there ranges northward to central British Columbia and southeastward to the Mexican border, becoming increasingly disjunct as latitude decreases and altitude increases. [[Pseudotsuga lindleyana|Mexican Douglas-fir]] (''P.&nbsp;lindleyana''), which ranges as far south as [[Oaxaca]], is often considered a variety of ''P. menziesii''.


== Ecology ==
== Ecology ==
Douglas-fir prefers acidic or neutral soils.<ref>https://www.arborday.org/trees/treeguide/treedetail.cfm?itemID=836</ref> However, Douglas fir exhibits considerable morphological plasticity, and on drier sites coast Douglas fir will generate deeper taproots. Interior Douglas fir exhibits even greater plasticity, occurring in stands of interior temperate rainforest in British Columbia, as well as at the edge of semi-arid sagebrush steppe throughout much of its range, where it generates even deeper taproots than coast Douglas fir is capable.
Douglas-fir prefers acidic or neutral soils.<ref>[https://www.arborday.org/trees/treeguide/treedetail.cfm?itemID=836 |title=Douglas-fir Tree on the Tree Guide|work=arborday.org}}</ref> However, Douglas-fir exhibits considerable morphological plasticity, and on drier sites coast Douglas-fir will generate deeper taproots. Interior Douglas-fir exhibits even greater plasticity, occurring in stands of interior temperate rainforest in British Columbia, as well as at the edge of semi-arid sagebrush steppe throughout much of its range, where it generates even deeper taproots than coast Douglas-fir is capable.
[[File:Pseudotsuga menziesii 01221.JPG|left|thumb|upright|A [[snag (ecology)|snag]] provides nest cavities for birds]]
[[File:Pseudotsuga menziesii 01221.JPG|left|thumb|upright|A [[snag (ecology)|snag]] provides nest cavities for birds]]


Mature or "old-growth" Douglas fir forest is the primary habitat of the [[red tree vole]] (''Arborimus longicaudus'') and the [[spotted owl]] (''Strix occidentalis''). Home range requirements for breeding pairs of spotted owls are at least 400&nbsp;ha ({{convert|4|km2|acre|disp=comma}}) of old-growth. Red tree voles may also be found in immature forests if Douglas fir is a significant component. This animal nests almost exclusively in the foliage of Douglas fir trees. Nests are located {{convert|2|-|50|m|ft|round=5}} above the ground. The red vole's diet consists chiefly of Douglas fir needles. A [[parasitic plant]] sometimes utilizing ''P. menziesii'' is [[Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe]] (''Arceuthobium douglasii'').
Mature or "old-growth" Douglas-fir forest is the primary habitat of the [[red tree vole]] (''Arborimus longicaudus'') and the [[spotted owl]] (''Strix occidentalis''). Home range requirements for breeding pairs of spotted owls are at least 400&nbsp;ha ({{convert|4|km2|acre|disp=comma}}) of old-growth. [[Red tree voles]] may also be found in immature forests if Douglas-fir is a significant component. The red vole nests almost exclusively in the foliage of the trees, typically {{convert|2|-|50|m|ft|round=5}} above the ground, and its diet consists chiefly of Douglas-fir needles. A [[parasitic plant]] sometimes utilizing ''P. menziesii'' is [[Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe]] (''Arceuthobium douglasii'').


The leaves are also used by the [[Adelgidae|woolly conifer aphid]] ''[[Adelges cooleyi]]''; this 0.5&nbsp;mm long [[Sap (plant)|sap]]-sucking [[insect]] is conspicuous on the undersides of the leaves by the small white "fluff spots" of protective wax that it produces. It is often present in large numbers, and can cause the foliage to turn yellowish from the damage it causes. Exceptionally, trees may be partially defoliated by it, but the damage is rarely this severe. Among [[Lepidoptera]], apart from some that feed on ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'' in general (see there) the [[gelechiid moth]]s ''Chionodes abella'' and ''C. periculella'' as well as the cone scale-eating [[tortrix moth]] ''[[Cydia illutana]]'' have been recorded specifically on ''P. menziesii''.
The leaves are also used by the [[Adelgidae|woolly conifer aphid]] ''[[Adelges cooleyi]]''; this 0.5&nbsp;mm long [[Sap (plant)|sap]]-sucking [[insect]] is conspicuous on the undersides of the leaves by the small white "fluff spots" of protective wax that it produces. It is often present in large numbers, and can cause the foliage to turn yellowish from the damage it causes. Exceptionally, trees may be partially defoliated by it, but the damage is rarely this severe. Among [[Lepidoptera]], apart from some that feed on ''Pseudotsuga'' in general (see there) the [[gelechiid moth]]s ''Chionodes abella'' and ''C. periculella'' as well as the cone scale-eating [[tortrix moth]] ''[[Cydia illutana]]'' have been recorded specifically on ''P. menziesii''.


[[File:Pseudotsuga menziesii 7971.JPG|right|thumb|upright|Mature individual in the [[Wenatchee Mountains]]]]
[[File:Pseudotsuga menziesii 7971.JPG|right|thumb|upright|Mature individual in the [[Wenatchee Mountains]]]]


The coast Douglas fir variety is the dominant tree west of the Cascade Mountains in the [[Pacific Northwest]], occurring in nearly all forest types, competes well on most parent materials, aspects, and slopes. Adapted to a moist, mild climate, it grows larger and faster than [[Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir|Rocky Mountain Douglas fir]]. Associated trees include [[western hemlock]], [[Sitka spruce]], [[sugar pine]], [[western white pine]], [[ponderosa pine]], [[grand fir]], [[coast redwood]], [[western redcedar]], [[incense-cedar|California incense-cedar]], [[Chamaecyparis lawsoniana|Lawson's cypress]], [[tanoak]], [[bigleaf maple]] and several others. Pure stands are also common, particularly north of the [[Umpqua River]] in Oregon.
The coast Douglas-fir variety is the dominant tree west of the Cascade Mountains in the [[Pacific Northwest]], occurring in nearly all forest types, competes well on most parent materials, aspects, and slopes. Adapted to a moist, mild climate, it grows larger and faster than Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Associated trees include [[western hemlock]], [[Sitka spruce]], [[sugar pine]], [[western white pine]], [[ponderosa pine]], [[grand fir]], [[coast redwood]], [[western redcedar]], [[incense-cedar|California incense-cedar]], [[Chamaecyparis lawsoniana|Lawson's cypress]], [[tanoak]], [[bigleaf maple]] and several others. Pure stands are also common, particularly north of the [[Umpqua River]] in Oregon.


[[Poriol]] is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid, produced by ''P. menziesii'' in reaction to infection by ''[[Poria weirii]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Barton | first1 = G.M. | year = 1972 | title = New C-methylflavanones from Douglas fir | url = | journal = Phytochemistry | volume = 11 | issue = 1| pages = 426–429 | doi = 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90036-0 }}</ref>
[[Poriol]] is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid, produced by ''P. menziesii'' in reaction to infection by ''[[Poria weirii]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Barton | first1 = G.M. | year = 1972 | title = New C-methylflavanones from Douglas-fir | url = | journal = Phytochemistry | volume = 11 | issue = 1| pages = 426–429 | doi = 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90036-0 }}</ref>


== Uses ==
== Uses ==
⚫
The species is extensively used in [[forestry]] as a [[plantation]] tree for softwood [[timber]]. The timber is used for joinery, veneer, flooring and construction due to its strength, hardness and durability.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wood-database.com/douglas-fir/|title=Douglas-Fir |work=Wood Database|accessdate=August 15, 2018}}</ref> It is also [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] throughout Europe,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Pseudotsuga&SPECIES_XREF=menziesii&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK=|title=Distribution of Douglas-fir|publisher=Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh}}</ref> Argentina and Chile (called ''Pino Oregón''), and in New Zealand sometimes to the extent of becoming an invasive species (termed a [[wilding conifer]]) subject to control measures.
⚫
This plant has ornamental value in large parks and gardens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=6316|title=''Pseudotsuga menziesii''
|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society}}</ref>


⚫
The species has ornamental value in large parks and gardens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=6316|title=''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society}}</ref>
⚫
Away from its native area, it is also extensively used in [[forestry]] as a [[plantation]] tree for [[timber]] in Europe, New Zealand, Chile and elsewhere. It is also [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] throughout Europe,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Pseudotsuga&SPECIES_XREF=menziesii&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK=|title=Distribution of Douglas fir|publisher=Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh}}</ref> Argentina and Chile (called ''Pino Oregón''), and in New Zealand sometimes to the extent of becoming an invasive species (termed a [[wilding conifer]]) subject to control measures.


The buds have been used to flavor [[eau de vie]], a clear, colorless fruit brandy.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/15/dining/15pour.html|title=An Orchard in a Bottle, at 80 Proof|first=Eric|last=Asimov|authorlink=Eric Asimov|date=August 15, 2007|work=The New York Times|accessdate=February 1, 2009}}</ref>
The buds have been used to flavor [[eau de vie]], a clear, colorless fruit brandy.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/15/dining/15pour.html|title=An Orchard in a Bottle, at 80 Proof|first=Eric|last=Asimov|authorlink=Eric Asimov|date=August 15, 2007|work=The New York Times|accessdate=February 1, 2009}}</ref>


[[Native Hawaiian]]s built ''waʻa kaulua'' ([[Outrigger canoe|double-hulled canoes]]) from coast Douglas fir logs that had [[Driftwood|drifted]] ashore.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conifers.org/pi/Pseudotsuga_menziesii_menziesii.php|title=Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii |publisher=The Gymnosperm Database |accessdate=March 17, 2013|quote=This was the preferred species for Hawaiian war canoes. The Hawaiians, of course, did not log the trees; they had to rely on driftwood.}}</ref>
[[Native Hawaiian]]s built ''waʻa kaulua'' ([[Outrigger canoe|double-hulled canoes]]) from coast Douglas-fir logs that had [[Driftwood|drifted]] ashore.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conifers.org/pi/Pseudotsuga_menziesii_menziesii.php|title=Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii |publisher=The Gymnosperm Database |accessdate=March 17, 2013|quote=This was the preferred species for Hawaiian war canoes. The Hawaiians, of course, did not log the trees; they had to rely on driftwood.}}</ref>


The Douglas fir has been commonly used as a [[Christmas tree]] since the 1920s. Douglas fir Christmas trees are typically grown on plantations.<ref name=christmas>{{cite web|url=http://www.realchristmastrees.org/dnn/Education/Tree-Varieties/DouglasFir|title=Douglas Fir|publisher=National Christmas Tree Association}}</ref>
Douglas-fir has been commonly used as a [[Christmas tree]] since the 1920s, and the trees are typically grown on plantations.<ref name=christmas>{{cite web|url=http://www.realchristmastrees.org/dnn/Education/Tree-Varieties/DouglasFir|title=Douglas-Fir|publisher=National Christmas Tree Association}}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
*[[Pseudotsuga#Species_and_varieties|List of Douglas-fir species]]
*[[List of Douglas-fir diseases]]
*[[List of Douglas-fir diseases]]


Line 69: Line 68:


== Further reading ==
== Further reading ==
* Emily K. Brock, ''Money Trees: The Douglas Fir and American Forestry, 1900–1944.'' Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press, 2015.
* Emily K. Brock, ''Money Trees: The Douglas-Fir and American Forestry, 1900–1944.'' Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press, 2015.
* {{FEIS |last=Uchytil |first=Ronald J. |date=1991 |type=tree |genus=Pseudotsuga |species=menziesii |variety=menziesii}}
* {{FEIS |last=Uchytil |first=Ronald J. |date=1991 |type=tree |genus=Pseudotsuga |species=menziesii |variety=menziesii}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
* [http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=10283 Calflora Database: ''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' (Douglas fir)]
* [http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=10283 Calflora Database: ''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' (Douglas-fir)]
* [http://www.conifers.org/pi/Pseudotsuga_menziesii_menziesii.php Conifers.org: ''Pseudotsuga menziesii'']
* [http://www.conifers.org/pi/Pseudotsuga_menziesii_menziesii.php Conifers.org: ''Pseudotsuga menziesii'']
* [http://www.pinetum.org/cones/PScones.htm Arboretum de Villardebelle&nbsp;– cone photos]
* [http://www.pinetum.org/cones/PScones.htm Arboretum de Villardebelle&nbsp;– cone photos]

Revision as of 10:05, 15 August 2018

"Douglas-fir" redirects here. For the genus and the other species with common names containing "Douglas fir" or "Douglas-fir", see Pseudotsuga. For the ship, see Oregon Pine (schooner).

Douglas-fir
Coast Douglas firs in Marysville, Washington
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnospermae
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order: Pinales
Family: Pinaceae
Genus: Pseudotsuga
Species:
P. menziesii
Binomial name
Pseudotsuga menziesii
  Green: Coast Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii)
  Blue: Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca)

Pseudotsuga menziesii is an evergreen conifer species of the Pseudotsuga genus from the Pinaceae family. It is native to western North America and is known by the common names Douglas-fir, Oregon pine and Columbian Pine. There are two varieties: Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii or coast Douglas-fir, and Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca or Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir.

Naming

The common name honors David Douglas, a Scottish botanist and collector who first reported the extraordinary nature and potential of the species. The common name is misleading since it is not a true fir, i.e., not a member of the genus Abies. For this reason the name is often written as Douglas-fir (a name also used for the genus Pseudotsuga as a whole).[2]

The specific epithet, menziesii, is after Archibald Menzies, a Scottish physician and rival naturalist to David Douglas. Menzies first documented the tree on Vancouver Island in 1791. Colloquially, the species is also known simply as Doug-fir or as Douglas pine (although the latter common name may also refer to Pinus douglasiana). Other common names are Oregon Pine and Columbian Pine.

One Coast Salish name for the tree, used in the Halkomelem language, is lá:yelhp.[3]

Description

Douglas-firs are medium-size to extremely large evergreen trees, 20–100 metres (70–330 ft) tall (although only coast Douglas-firs reach such great heights).[4] The leaves are flat, soft, linear, 2–4 centimetres (3⁄4–1+1⁄2 in) long, generally resembling those of the firs, occurring singly rather than in fascicles; they completely encircle the branches, which can be useful in recognizing the species. As the trees grow taller in denser forest, they lose their lower branches, such that the foliage may start high off the ground. Douglas-firs in environments with more light may have branches much closer to the ground.

The female cones are pendulous, with persistent scales unlike true firs. They are distinctive in having a long tridentine (three-pointed) bract that protrudes prominently above each scale (it resembles the back half of a mouse, with two feet and a tail).

Distribution

Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii, also known as 'coast Douglas-fir', grows in the coastal regions from west-central British Columbia southward to central California. In Oregon and Washington, its range is continuous from the eastern edge of the Cascades west to the Pacific Coast Ranges and Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in the Klamath and California Coast Ranges as far south as the Santa Lucia Range, with a small stand as far south as the Purisima Hills in Santa Barbara County.[5][6] In the Sierra Nevada, it ranges as far south as the Yosemite region. It occurs from near sea level along the coast to 1,800 m (5,900 ft) above sea level in the mountains of California.

Another variety exists further inland, Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca, also known as 'Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir' or 'Interior Douglas-fir'. Interior Douglas-fir intergrades with coast Douglas-fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia, and from there ranges northward to central British Columbia and southeastward to the Mexican border, becoming increasingly disjunct as latitude decreases and altitude increases. Mexican Douglas-fir (P. lindleyana), which ranges as far south as Oaxaca, is often considered a variety of P. menziesii.

Ecology

Douglas-fir prefers acidic or neutral soils.[7] However, Douglas-fir exhibits considerable morphological plasticity, and on drier sites coast Douglas-fir will generate deeper taproots. Interior Douglas-fir exhibits even greater plasticity, occurring in stands of interior temperate rainforest in British Columbia, as well as at the edge of semi-arid sagebrush steppe throughout much of its range, where it generates even deeper taproots than coast Douglas-fir is capable.

A snag provides nest cavities for birds

Mature or "old-growth" Douglas-fir forest is the primary habitat of the red tree vole (Arborimus longicaudus) and the spotted owl (Strix occidentalis). Home range requirements for breeding pairs of spotted owls are at least 400 ha (4 square kilometres, 990 acres) of old-growth. Red tree voles may also be found in immature forests if Douglas-fir is a significant component. The red vole nests almost exclusively in the foliage of the trees, typically 2–50 metres (5–165 ft) above the ground, and its diet consists chiefly of Douglas-fir needles. A parasitic plant sometimes utilizing P. menziesii is Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium douglasii).

The leaves are also used by the woolly conifer aphid Adelges cooleyi; this 0.5 mm long sap-sucking insect is conspicuous on the undersides of the leaves by the small white "fluff spots" of protective wax that it produces. It is often present in large numbers, and can cause the foliage to turn yellowish from the damage it causes. Exceptionally, trees may be partially defoliated by it, but the damage is rarely this severe. Among Lepidoptera, apart from some that feed on Pseudotsuga in general (see there) the gelechiid moths Chionodes abella and C. periculella as well as the cone scale-eating tortrix moth Cydia illutana have been recorded specifically on P. menziesii.

Mature individual in the Wenatchee Mountains

The coast Douglas-fir variety is the dominant tree west of the Cascade Mountains in the Pacific Northwest, occurring in nearly all forest types, competes well on most parent materials, aspects, and slopes. Adapted to a moist, mild climate, it grows larger and faster than Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Associated trees include western hemlock, Sitka spruce, sugar pine, western white pine, ponderosa pine, grand fir, coast redwood, western redcedar, California incense-cedar, Lawson's cypress, tanoak, bigleaf maple and several others. Pure stands are also common, particularly north of the Umpqua River in Oregon.

Poriol is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid, produced by P. menziesii in reaction to infection by Poria weirii.[8]

Uses

The species is extensively used in forestry as a plantation tree for softwood timber. The timber is used for joinery, veneer, flooring and construction due to its strength, hardness and durability.[9] It is also naturalised throughout Europe,[10] Argentina and Chile (called Pino Oregón), and in New Zealand sometimes to the extent of becoming an invasive species (termed a wilding conifer) subject to control measures.

The species has ornamental value in large parks and gardens.[11]

The buds have been used to flavor eau de vie, a clear, colorless fruit brandy.[12]

Native Hawaiians built waʻa kaulua (double-hulled canoes) from coast Douglas-fir logs that had drifted ashore.[13]

Douglas-fir has been commonly used as a Christmas tree since the 1920s, and the trees are typically grown on plantations.[14]

See also

References

  1. ^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Pseudotsuga menziesii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013. IUCN: e.T42429A2979531. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42429A2979531.en. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
  2. ^ "Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga)". Common Trees of the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University. Retrieved March 28, 2013.
  3. ^ Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem, Volume I, pp. 213. Galloway, Brent Douglas.
  4. ^ Carder, Al (1995). Forest Giants of the World Past and Present. pp. 3–4.
  5. ^ James R. Griffin (September 1964). "A New Douglas-Fir Locality in Southern California". Forest Science: 317–319. Retrieved December 31, 2010.
  6. ^ James R. Griffin; William B. Critchfield (1976). The Distribution of Forest Trees in California USDA Forest Service Research Paper PSW – 82/1972 (PDF). Berkeley, California: USDA Forest Service. p. 114. Retrieved 2015-05-03.
  7. ^ [https://www.arborday.org/trees/treeguide/treedetail.cfm?itemID=836 |title=Douglas-fir Tree on the Tree Guide|work=arborday.org}}
  8. ^ Barton, G.M. (1972). "New C-methylflavanones from Douglas-fir". Phytochemistry. 11 (1): 426–429. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90036-0.
  9. ^ "Douglas-Fir". Wood Database. Retrieved August 15, 2018.
  10. ^ "Distribution of Douglas-fir". Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh.
  11. ^ "Pseudotsuga menziesii". Royal Horticultural Society.
  12. ^ Asimov, Eric (August 15, 2007). "An Orchard in a Bottle, at 80 Proof". The New York Times. Retrieved February 1, 2009.
  13. ^ "Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii". The Gymnosperm Database. Retrieved March 17, 2013. This was the preferred species for Hawaiian war canoes. The Hawaiians, of course, did not log the trees; they had to rely on driftwood.
  14. ^ "Douglas-Fir". National Christmas Tree Association.

Further reading

  • Emily K. Brock, Money Trees: The Douglas-Fir and American Forestry, 1900–1944. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press, 2015.
  • Uchytil, Ronald J. (1991). "Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii". Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service (USFS), Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.
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