Nuclear decommissioning
The decommissioning of nuclear power plants is sometimes referred to as nuclear decommissioning, to mark the difference between 'conventional' decommissioning and dismantling projects. The main difference to the dismantling of a 'conventional' facility is the possible presence of radioactive or fissile material in a nuclear facility, that requires special precautions.
Generally speaking, nuclear plants were designed for a life of about 30 years. Newer plants are designed for a 40 to 60 year operating life.
Decommissioning involves many administrative and technical actions. It includes all clean-up of radioactivity and progressive demolition of the plant. Once a facility is decommissioned, there should no longer be any danger of a radioactive accident or to any persons visiting it. After a facility has been taken out of service it allows its release from regulatory control and relieves the licensee of his responsibility for its nuclear safety.
Decommissioning options
The International Atomic Energy Agency has defined three options for decommissioning, the definitions of which have been internationally adopted:
- Immediate Dismantling (or Early Site Release/Decon in the US): This option allows for the facility to be removed from regulatory control relatively soon after shutdown or termination of regulated activities. Usually, the final dismantling or decontamination activities begin within a few months or years, depending on the facility. Following removal from regulatory control, the site is then available for re-use.
- Safe Enclosure (or Safestor(e)): This option postpones the final removal of controls for a longer period, usually in the order of 40 to 60 years. The facility is placed into a safe storage configuration until the eventual dismantling and decontamination activities occur.
- Entombment: This option entails placing the facility into a condition that will allow the remaining on-site radioactive material to remain on-site without the requirement of ever removing it totally. This option usually involves reducing the size of the area where the radioactive material is located and then encasing the facility in a long-lived structure such as concrete, that will last for a period of time to ensure the remaining radioactivity is no longer of concern.
Experience
A wide range of nuclear facilities has been decommissioned so far. This includes nuclear power plants (NPPs), research reactors, isotope production plants, particle accelerators, uranium mines etc. However, the number of decommissioned power plants is fairly small. There are companies specialized in nuclear decommissioning; the practice of decommissioning has turned into a profitable business. Decommissionning is very expensive; the current estimate by the United Kingdom's Nuclear Decommissioning Authority is that it will cost at least £70 billion to decommission the existing United Kingdom nuclear sites; this takes no account of what will happen in the future. Also, due to the latent radioactivity in the reactor core, the decommissioning of a reactor is a slow process which has to take place in stages; the plans of the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority for decommissioning reactors have an average 50 year time frame. The long time frame makes reliable cost estimates extremely difficult. Excessive cost overruns are not uncommon even for projects done in a much shorter time.
Nuclear Decommissioning in the American continent
Several nuclear reactors dismantled in America, type, power and decommissioning cost (often is mentioned only the probable cost per kilowatt of power: [1], [2], [3].
| Country: | Location: | Reactor type: | Operative life: | Decommissioning phase: |
Dismantling costs: |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Canada (Québec) | Gentilly-1 | CANDU-BWR 250 MWe |
180 days (between 1966 and 1973) |
"Static state" since 1986 [4] [5] [6] | stage two: US $ 25 Million |
| Canada (Ontario) |
Pickering NGS -A2, A3 |
CANDU-PWR 8 x 542 MWe |
30 years (from 1974 to 2004) |
Currently in "cold standby" Decommissioning in 2012? |
(calculated: $ 270-430/kWe ?) |
| USA | Fort St. Vrain | HTGR (helium-graphite) 380 MWe |
12 years (1977-1989) |
Immediate Decon | $ 195 Million |
| USA | Rancho Seco [7] | Multiunit: PWR 913 MWe |
12 anni (Close after a referedum nel 1989) |
SAFSTOR: 5-10 anni fino al 2018 |
? ($ 200-500/kWe) [8] |
| USA | Three Mile Island 2 | Multiunit: 913 MWe PWR |
INCIDENT: core fusion (in 1979) |
Post-Defuelling Phase 2 (1979) |
$ 805 Million (estimated) [9] |
| USA | Shippingport | (The first BWR) 60 MWe |
25 years (closed in 1989) |
Decon completed dismantled in 5 years (first small experimental reactor) |
$ 98.3 Million [10] |
| USA | Trojan | PWR 1.180 MWe |
16 years (Closed in 1993 because nearby to seismic fault) |
SAFSTOR: (cooling tower demolished in 2006) |
? [11] [12] |
| USA | Yankee Rowe | PWR 185 MWe | 31 anni (1960-1991) |
DECON COMPLETED - Demolished (greenfield open to visitors) [13] |
? |
| USA | Maine Yankee | PWR 860 MWe |
24 years (closed in 1996) |
DECON COMPLETED - Demolished in 2004 (greenfield open to visitors) [14], [15] |
$ 635 Million [16] |
| USA | Connecticut Yankee | PWR 590 MWe |
28 years (closed in 1996) |
Decon - demolished in 2007 (greenfield open to visitors) [17] |
$ 820 Million [18] |
| USA | Exelon - Zion 1 & 2 |
PWR - Westinghouse 2 x 1040 MWe |
25 years (1973 - 1998) (Incident in proceedings, abandoned because of the excessive cost of vaporizers substitution) |
Safstor-EnergySolutions (opening of the site to visitors for 2018) [19] |
$ 900-1,100 Million (2007 dollars) [20] |
Nuclear Decommissioning in Asia
Several nuclear reactors dismantled in Asia, type, power and decommissioning cost per kilowatt of electric power (source: World Nuclear Association article [21] ).
| Country: | Location: | Reactor type: | Operative Life: | Decommissioning Phase: |
Dismantling Cost: |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| China [22] | Beijing (CIAE) | HWWR 10 MWe (multipurpose) (Heavy Water Experimental Reactor for the production of plutonium and tritium) |
49 years (1958-2007) |
Safestore & Decon in 20 years (until 2027) |
proposed: $ 6 Million for dismantling $ 5 Million for fuel remotion |
| North Korea | Yongbyon | Magnox-type (reactor for the production of nuclear weapons through PUREX treatment) |
20 years (1985-2005) Deactivated after a teatry [23], [24] |
SAFESTORE: Cooling tower dismantled |
? |
| Japan | Tokai-1 | Magnox (GCR) 160 MWe |
32 years (1966-1988) |
Safestore: 10 years [25], [26] then DECON until 2018 |
estimanted cost: Yen 93 Billion [27] (Euro 660 Million of 2003) |
| India [28], [29] |
Tarapur-1,2 (Maharashtra) |
2x BWR 160 MWe | 40 years ? (1969-2009?) |
NOT deactivated | ? |
| India [30] | Rawatbhata Atomic Power Station-1,2 (Rajasthan) |
1x PHWR 100 MWe 1x PHWR 200 MWe (similar to CANDU) |
40 years ? (1970-2011?) |
NOT deactivated | ? |
| Iraq | Osiraq/Tammuz-1 [31] |
BWR 40 MWe Nuclear reactor with weapons-grade plutonium production capability |
(Destroyed by Israeli Military Aviation in 1981)
|
Not radioactive: Never refurbished with uranium |
? |
Nuclear Decommissioning in Western Europe
Several nuclear reactors dismantled in Western Europe, type, power and decommissioning cost per kilowatt of power: European Union Website about Nuclear Decommissioning [32], World Nuclear Association (reactor building companies) [33], United Kingdom [34].
| Country: | Location: | Reactor type: | Operative Life: | Decommissioning phase: |
Dismantling cost: |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Austria [35] (Nuclear Free Country) [36] |
Zwentendorf NPP Google Maps |
PWR 723 MWe |
NEVER activated [37], after referendum in 1978 | ? | ? |
| Belgium | Mol | PWR (BR-3) |
25 years (1962-1987) |
DECON COMPLETED - pilot project (underwater cutting and remote operated tools) [38], [39] |
? |
| France | Brennilis | HWGCR 70 MWe | 12 years (1967-1979) ATTACK WITH EXPLOSIVES |
Phase 3 | Euro 480 Million (20 times the forecasted amount) |
| France | Bugey-1 | UNGG Gas cooled, graphite moderator |
? (1994) |
postposned | ? |
| France | Chinon 1,2,3 | Gas-graphite | (1973-1990) |
postponed | ? |
| France | St. Laurent | Gas-graphite | ? | postponed | ? |
| France | Superphénix at Creys-Malville |
Fast breeder nuclear reactor (sodium-cooled) |
11 years (1985-1996) |
postponed | estimated for the future: $ 4000/kWe ? |
| Great Britain | Berkeley | Magnox (2 x 138 MWe) |
27 years (1962-1989) |
Safestore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
$ 2600/kWe |
| Great Britain | Sellafield-Windscale (Note: [2]) |
Windscale Advanced Gas Reactor WAGR (32 MWe) |
18 years (1963-1981) Fire of graphite in moderation bars inside the reactor partial meltdown of fuel [40] |
Remotion of reactor in 2009 - pilot project (cutting with remot controlled robots, UV lasers) [41], [42], [43], [44] |
Bigger than $2600/kWe (WNI estimes) Until now E. 117 Million |
| West Germany | Gundremmingen-A | BWR 250 MWe |
11 years |
Immediate dismantling - pilot project (underwater cutting) |
(~ $ 300-550/kWe) |
| Italy | Caorso NPP | BWR 840 MWe [45], [46] |
3 years ( 1978 - Closed in 1987 after referendum in 1986 ) |
Safstore: 30 years (demolizione interna) |
$/kWe [47] |
| Italy | Garigliano NPP (Caserta) | Magnox 138 MWe [48] |
? years (Closed on March 01, 1982) |
Safstore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
$/kWe |
| Italy | Latina NPP (Foce Verde) | Magnox 210 MWe Gas-graphite [49] |
24 years ( 1962 - Closed in 1986 after referendum ) |
Safstore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
$/kWe |
| Italy | Trino Vercellese NPP | PWR Westinghouse, 270 MWe [50] |
? years ( Closed in 1986 after referendum ) |
Safstore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
$/kWe |
| Nederlands | Dodewaard NPP | BWR Westinghouse, 58 MWe [51] |
28 years (1969-1997) |
Defuelling completed - Safstore for 40 years |
$/kWe |
| Slovenia (former-Yugoslavia) |
Krsko NPP [52] | PWR (Westinghouse) 696 MWe |
40? years (1981-2021?) |
Will be deactivated in 2022 | ? |
| Spain | Vandellós NPP-1 | UNGG 480 MWe (gas-graphite) |
18 years Incident: fire in a turbogenerator (1989)
|
Safestore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
Phases 1 and 2: Euro 93 Million |
| Switzerland [53] | DIORIT | MWe Gas-graphite (experimental) |
() |
Safestore: ? years (internal demolition) |
? |
| Switzerland | LUCENS | 8,3 MWe CO2-heavy water (experimental) |
(1962-1969) Incident: fire in 1969 |
Entombment for ? years Safestore & Decon: 24 years (internal demolition) |
? |
| Switzerland | SAPHIR | 0,01-0,1 MWe (Light water pool) |
39 years (1955-1994) (Experimental demonstrator) |
(In public display since inauguration open to visitors: "Cherenkov's light") |
? |
- Repository for radioactive waste Morsleben 2.2 billion euro
Nuclear Decommissioning in Eastern Europe and former Soviet Union
Several nuclear reactors dismantled in the nations born from the former Soviet Union: (Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and others) and rectors dismantled in countries formerly belonging to "Warsaw Pact" and/or to "Comecon", type, electric power and decommissioning cost per kilowatt of power: World Nuclear Association [54], OSTI (Russia & USA) [3].
| Country: | Location: | Reactor typr: | Operative life: | Decommissioning phase: |
Dismantling cost: |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bulgaria | Kozloduy NPP-1,2,3,4 [55] | PWR VVER-440 (4 x 408 Mwe) |
Reactors 1,2 closed in 2003, reactors 3,4 closed in 2006 (Closing forced by European Union) |
De-fuelling | ? |
| East Germany | Greifswald NPP-1, 2,3,4,5 |
VVER-440 5 x 408 MWe |
Immediate dismantling (underwater cutting) |
(~ $ 330/kWe) | |
| East Germany | Rheinsbergh NPP-1 | VVER-210 70-80 MWe |
24 years (1966-1990) |
In dismantling since 1996 Safstor (underwater cutting) |
(~ $ 330/kWe) |
| East Germany | Stendal NPP-1,2,3,4 | VVER-1000 (4 x 1000 MWe) |
Never activated (1st reactor 85% completed) |
NOT radioactive (Cooling towers demolished with explosives) |
(?) (Structure in exhibition inside an industrial park) |
| Russia | Mayak [56] (Chelyabinsk-65) |
PUREX plant for uranium enrichment |
Several severe incidents (1946-1956) |
? | ? |
| Russia | Seversk [57] (Tomsk-7) |
Three plutonium reactors Plant for uranium enrichment |
Two fast-breeder reactors closed (of three), after disarmaments agreements with USA in 2003 [58]. | ? | ? |
| Slovakia | Mochovce NPP-1,2 (180 km east from Vienna) [59], [60] |
VVER 440 2 X 440 MWe |
(1998-2028?) | ? | |
| Ukraine | Chernobyl NPP-4 (110 km from Kiev) |
RBMK-1000 1000 MWe |
? years WORST NUCLEAR ACCIDENT IN ALL HISTORY: hydrogen explosion, then graphite fire (1986) See:Chernobyl disaster |
ENTOMBMENT (armed concrete "sarcophagus") |
Past: ? Future: riding sarcophagus in steel [61] |
Legal aspects
The decommission of a nuclear reactor can only take place after the appropriate licence has been granted pursuant to the relevant legislation. As part of the licensing procedure various documents, reports and expert opinions have to be written and delivered to the competent authority, e.g. safety report, technical documents, environmental impact study (EIS).
In the European Union these documents are the basis for the environmental impact assessment (EIA) according to Council Directive 85/337/EEC. A precondition for granting such a licence is an opinion by the European Commission according to Article 37 of the Euratom Treaty. Article 37 obliges every Member State of the European Union to communicate certain data relating to the release of radioactive substances to the Commission. This information must reveal whether and if so what radiological impacts decommissioning – planned disposal and accidental release – will have on the environment, i.e. water, soil or airspace, of the EU Member States [62]. On the basis of these general data, the Commission must be in a position to assess the exposure of reference groups of the population in the nearest neighbouring states.
Cost of decommissioning
In USA many utilities estimates now average $325 million per reactor all-up (1998 $).
In France, decommissioning of Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant, a fairly small 70 MW power plant, already cost 480 millions euros (20x the estimate costs) and is still pending after 20 years. Despite the huge investments in securing the dismantlement, radioactive elements such as Plutonium, Cesium-137 and Cobalt-60 leaked out into the surrounding lake.[63] [64]
In the UK, decommissioning of Windscale Advanced Cooled Reactor (WAGR), a 32 MW power plant, cost 117 millions euros.
In Germany, decommissioning of Niederaichbach nuclear power plant, a 100MW power plant, cost about 90 millions euros.
(Lack of) Decommissioning Funds
In Europe there is considerable concern on the funds necessary to finance final decommissioning. In many countries either the funds do not appear sufficient to pay the financial decommissioning, and in other countries the (substantial) funds are being used (too) freely for activities other than decommissioning, putting the funds at risk, and distorting competition with parties who do not have nuclear decommissioning funds available.[65]
Currently (2008) the European Commission is looking into this issue.
See also
- Nuclear Decommissioning Authority
- Ship-Submarine recycling program
- Nuclear entombment
- Marcoule French nuclear site
References
- ^ Nuclear Decommissioning article by World Nuclear Association (associaciation of nuclear reactors builders: [1]
- ^ NRC: Locations of Power Reactor Sites Undergoing Decommissioning
- ^ a b OSTI: Appendix A - A Summary of the Shutdown and Decommissioning Experience for Nuclear Power Plants in the United States and the Russian Federation. Appendix B - A Summary of the Regulatory Environment for the Shutdown and Decommissioning of Nuclear Power Plants in the United States and the Russian Federation. Appendix C - Recommended Outlines for Decommissioning Documentation
- ^ IAEA: Taking Canada's Gentilly-1 to a "static state (by Balarko Gupta)
- ^ ASCE: Gentilly-1 a study in nuclear decommission
- ^ A Chernobyl in Québec? (correspondence on the dangers of Québec's only nuclear plant)
- ^ OSTI: Energy Citations Database about Rancho Seco nuclear power plant
- ^ US-NRC: Rancho Seco nuclear power plant
- ^ UNITED STATES NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION: Three Mile Island - Decomissioning Unit 2
- ^ OSTI, Office of Scientific and Technical Information - Shippingport station decommissioning project: start of physical decommissioning
- ^ Koberstein, Paul (2005-03-09). "Trojan: PGE's Nuclear Gamble". Willamette Week. p. A1. Retrieved 2007-06-15.
{{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help) - ^ "Trojan Nuclear Plant Decommissioning Update" (PDF). Issues in Perspective. Portland General Electric. 2006. Retrieved 2008-04-06.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Yankee Rowe Nuclear Reactor (third nuclear reactor in USA, totally dismantled)
- ^ Maine Yankee Nuclear Power Station, ME - Power Technology
- ^ Maine Yankee Decommissioning 80% Complete
- ^ Maine Yankee Decommissioning Experience Report
- ^ Connecticut Yankee Nuclear Reactor - Complete Decommissioning
- ^ SEC-INFORMATION: Connecticut Yankee The United Illuminating Company (UI), a wholly owned subsidiary of UIL Holdings Corporation (UIL), owns 9.5% of the equity of Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power Company. Connecticut Yankee has prepared a draft updated estimate of the cost of decommissioning its nuclear unit, as part of its transition to self performance of decommissioning. Connecticut Yankee's draft updated cost estimate includes an increase of approximately $270 million over the cost estimate reported in November 2002
- ^ With Exelon's Zion 1 & 2 reactors (2 x 1098 MWe) closed down in 1998 and in Safstor, a slightly different process is envisaged, considerably accelerating the decommissioning. Exelon has contracted with a specialist company - EnergySolutions, to remove the plant and return the site to greenfield status. To achieve this, the plant's licence and decommissioning funds will be transferred to EnergySolutions, which will then be owner and licensee, and the site will be returned to Exelon about 2018. Used fuel would remain on site until taken to the national repository.
- ^ WEBWIRE: Exelon Nuclear To Accelerate Decommissioning Of Zion Station
- ^ Nuclear Decommissioning article by the association of nuclear reactor builders http://www.world-nuclear.org
- ^ IAEA: Decommissioning in China
- ^ PRESS TV (Iranian News Agency): North Korea to decommission nuclear facility
- ^ THE GUARDIAN: Nuclear agreement: North Korea halts decommissioning
- ^ Article in IAEA-TECDOC--1043: Permanent cessation of Tokai power plant's operation
- ^ Science Links Japan: Progression of decommissioning of Tokai power plant. First case of power reactor in Japan.
- ^ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/Nuclear Energy Agency, report 2003: "Strategy Selection for the Decommissioning of Nuclear Facilities" (page 118)
- ^ SCIDEV: India's energy mix needs nuclear boost
- ^ ECOWORLD: Nuclear power in India, by Avilash Roul
- ^ INDIA - CISED: Economics of Nuclear Power Heavy Water Reactors
- ^ Federation of American Scientists: Osiraq/Tammuz Nuclear Reactor
- ^ European webside on Decommissioning of Nuclear Intallations - Decommissioning in Europe
- ^ Nuclear Decommissioning (Reactor Building Companies) http://www.world-nuclear.org
- ^ British Parliament: Estimated dates for the dismantling of nuclear reactors in the United Kingdom
- ^ NEA: Decommissioning in Austria
- ^ EURONUCLEAR-NEWS: Can Austria Survive Without Nuclear Power ?
- ^ SUSTAINABILITY INSTITUTE: Zwentendorf, a Nuclear Plant That Will Never Be Turned On
- ^ EU-DECOM-belgium - From 1979 until now: five framework programmes
- ^ [http://www.eundetraf.be/html/eundetraf-2002.html The European Nuclear Decommissioning Training Facility - Mol, Belgium, 2002]
- ^ NUCLEARTOURIST: Partial Fuel Meltdown Events
- ^ UKAEA - Case Studies - Decommissioning - Windscale Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor
- ^ EU-DECOM-belgium - From 1979 until now: five framework programmes
- ^ WAGR decommissioning : preparation, removal and disposal of the WAGR heat exchangers
- ^ Summary of Responses to Discussion Letter on Future of Windscale
- ^ Zona Nucleare - La centrale nucleare in fase di smantellamento ex-ENEL di Caorso (Piacenza)
- ^ Il Fiume Po: La Centrale Nucleare di Caorso
- ^ LA REPUBBLICA: Per Caorso un addio lungo mezzo secolo, piano ENEL per smantellare la centrale
- ^ Zona Nucleare - La centrale nucleare in fase di smantellamento ex-ENEL di Garigliano (Caserta)
- ^ Zona Nucleare - La centrale nucleare in fase di smantellamento ex-ENEL di Foce Verde (Latina)
- ^ Zona Nucleare - La centrale nucleare in fase di smantellamento ex-ENEL di Trino Vercellese (Vercelli)
- ^ NEA: Decommissioning in the Netherlands ([[]])
- ^ Nuclear Power in Slovenia
- ^ Nuclear Energy Agency: Decommissioning in Switzerland
- ^ Nuclear Decommissioning article by the international association of nuclear reactor builders http://www.world-nuclear.org
- ^ World Nuclear Association: Nuclear Power in Bulgaria
- ^ La storia dei ripetuti incidenti a Majak
- ^ UK-Russia Closed Nuclear Cities Partnership
- ^ Russia shuts second plutonium-producing reactor at Seversk
- ^ BBC: Austria against restarting of nuclear reactor at Mochovce
- ^ YAHOO NEWS: Slovakia forced to restar nuclear reactors after Ukranian gas crisis
- ^ European Bank for Reconstruction and Development: Breakthrough for Chernobyl nuclear decommissioning efforts (Consortium Novarka to build New Safe Confinement Holtec International to complete Spent Fuel Storage)
- ^ Heuel-Fabianek, B., Kümmerle, E., Möllmann-Coers, M., Lennartz, R. (2008): The relevance of Article 37 of the Euratom Treaty for the dismantling of nuclear reactors. atw - International Journal for Nuclear Power 6/2008
- ^ Le Télégramme: Brennilis
- ^ Ouest-France: "Brennilis : EDF se fait taper sur les doigts"
- ^ ENDS: Nuclear decommissioning funds “require oversight”
External links
- decommissioning.info is a portal with information on nuclear decommissioning
- US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
- European website on decommissioning of nuclear installations
- Decommissioning Fund Methodologies for Nuclear Installations in the EU, rapport by the German Wuppertal Institute, commissioned by the European Commission. May 2007.