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Chetniks

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Chetnik movement
Dates of operationEarly 20th century –
May 8, 1945
(arguably also the 1990s)
Motivesexpansion of Serbia, restoration of monarchism in occupied Yugoslavia
Active regionsoccupied Yugoslavia (WWII)
Serbia
Montenegro
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Croatia
(1990s)
IdeologyMonarchism, Serbian nationalism, Greater Serbia
Statusdefunct
File:Chetniks with German soldiers.jpg
Chetniks posing with soldiers of the German occupation forces during World War II in an unidentified Serbian village in Yugoslavia

The Chetnik movement or the Chetniks (Serbian: Četnici, Cyrillic script: Четници) were a Serbian-nationalist and royalist paramilitary organization operating in the Balkans before and during World Wars. They are mostly known for their participation in World War II, known officially as the "Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland" (Jugoslovenska vojska u otadžbini, Југословенска војска у отаџбини; JVUO, ЈВУО). In 1941, Yugoslavia was defeated by Germany and occupied by the Axis powers, an occupation that lasted between 1941 and 1945. While initially formed as a resistance movement, they collaborated with the Axis occupation to an ever-increasing degree, eventually functioning by the end of the War as an Axis-supported militia.[1][2][3][4] The movement consisted at all times mostly of nationalist Serbs. The name "Chetnik" was also used by some guerrilla squads active in the wars in the Balkans prior to World War I, while some Serbian nationalist paramilitary formations have identifies with the movement during the recent Yugoslav wars.[3]

Etymology

The word, "chetnik", is derived from the Serbian word "četa" (чета) which means "military company", itself derived from Turkish "çete", gang or band (e.g., of brigands).

Early chetniks in Macedonia

Chetniks in Skopje, 1908
Chetnik leader, Jovan Babunski
See also: Balkan Wars

The word "chetnik" was first used in early 20th century Macedonia by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO)[citation needed] freedom fighters against the Ottoman Empire. Soon, most ethnic groups in the Balkans had their own chetnik detachments: Serbs, Bulgarians, Greek Andartes and Albanian Kacak.[citation needed] Part of the IMRO members that fought till 1903 as pro-Bulgarian Macedonians, in 1903 started fighting as pro-Serbian Macedonians. This was due the offers made by Serb officials vis-a-vis the new policy of the Serbian kingdom towards Macedonia. In Vranje in 1904 the organization known as the "Serb Chetnik Movement" (Српски Четнички Покрет) was formed by the members of the St Sava organization, by members of the army and representatives of the ministry of foreign affairs. Besides the autonomist IMRO chetniks that already existed in Macedonia, Serbia started equipping and sending pro-Serbian Macedonian chetniks which were in conflict with the autonomist and pro-Bulgarian chetniks.

The Macedonian pro-Serbian chetniks from 1904 till 1908 created strongholds in Skopje and Prilep regions after several battles against the Turks and the IMRO, but could not extend their territory due to the IMRO presence in the other parts of Macedonia. The most prominent chetniks from Macedonia were Jovan Babunski and Gligor Sokolović. After the proclamation of the Young Turk revolution in 1908 and the proclamation of the constitution, all of the brigands in Macedonia, including the pro-Serbian chetniks put down their weapons. This period lasted until 1912, when the Balkan countries once again started arming guerrilla bands in Macedonia in order to help them in operations against the Ottoman army. At the start of the Balkan wars there were 110 IMRO, 108 Greek, 30 Serbian, and 5 Vlach detachments. They fought against the Turks in the First Balkan War, while in World War I they fought against Austria-Hungary.

World War I and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia

In World War I bands of chetniks fought against the Bulgarian Army and organized the Topličko insurrection, which was quickly crushed by the Bulgarians with assistance of the Ottoman Empire.

After the formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and the arrival of peacetime, the Chetnik movement ceased functioning as a guerrilla force, and became a civilian organization. In 1921 the 'Organization of Chetniks for the Freedom and Honor of the Fatherland' (Udruženje Četnika za slobodu i čast Otadžbine) was formed, and in 1924 the 'Organization of Serbian Chetniks for King and Fatherland' (Udruženje srpskih četnika za Kralja i Otadžbinu), while the formation of the 'Organization of Serbian Chetniks Petar Mrkonjić' (Udruženje srpskih četnika Petar Mrkonjić) also followed. These latter two merged together the following year as the 'Organization of Serbian Chetniks Petar Mrkonjić'.

After the unitarianist King Alexander I proclaimed a dictatorship in 1929, the 'Organization of Serbian Chetniks Petar Mrkonjić' was banned while the 'Organization of Chetniks for Freedom and Honour of the Fatherland' was allowed to continue operating. Kosta Pećanac was the organization's leader from 1932 up to the occupation of Yugoslavia in 1941.[5]

World War II

Main article: Yugoslav People's Liberation War

Formation and ideology

In 1941 The Yugoslav resistance forces consisted of two factions: the communist-led Yugoslav Partisans (or simply the "Partisans"), and the royalist Chetniks. The Chetniks were founded as a royalist movement, and increasingly functioned as a Serb nationalist militia dependent on, and collaborating with, the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia. The movement was reactivated under the form of the "Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland" by Colonel Draža Mihailović in the Ravna Gora province after the invasion of Yugoslavia.

The 1941 wanted poster reads, whoever brings Draža Mihailović, dead or alive, will get 100,000 German Reichsmark as a reward. In the following years, Draža Mihailović was to start collaborating with the Axis occupation,[6] placing his Chetniks at their disposal.[2]

The Chetnik salute was: "For King and Fatherland" (Za kralja i otadžbinu, За краља и отаџбину). The Chetnik code, usually displayed on flags, was "With faith in God! For King and Fatherland! Freedom or Death!".[7] Many Chetniks started to grow elaborate beards during the war, as growing beards is traditional in Orthodox Christian mourning, with the intent to keep them until their King returned. This trait earned them the derogatory nickname "Bradonje", Serbo-Croatian for "bearded ones", or "bearded guys". However, Chetnik units had a clear Serbian nationalist ideology and aimed towards the creation of a Serb-dominated Yugoslavia or Greater Serbia. During the course of the war, Mihailović increasingly changed his position from Yugoslavian unitarianist to Serbian nationalist. As his international support eroded, however, and the Partisans received Allied recognition and support, he decided to convene the "Congress of St Sava" (the patron saint of Serbia) which was organized by Živko Topalović, and held at Ba in the Suvobor Mountains, Serbia. It was attended by a number of delegates from all over Yugoslavia. In his statement at the opening, he stated:

With the utmost vigor I refute all suggestions, wherever they may come from, that the army, and I personally, have any dictatorial intentions.... In addition, our laws are sufficient guarantee that right will be satisfied. Because of that, the innocent cannot suffer. They will receive protection from me, personally, and from the army. We will not tolerate any unilateral initiatives.

The Congress brought forth seven resolutions, these called for a federal state with political and cultural rights for all citizens. King Peter II was to remain the constitutional monarch until such time as a freely elected national assembly chose to remove him. This move came too late to result in a shift of Allied support from Marshal Josip Broz Tito's Partisans.

The movement consisted at all times of a vast majority of nationalist Serbs and Montenegrins.[3] However, a small number of Croats,[8] Slovenes,[9] and Bosnian Muslims[10][11], who were loyal to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's government in exile, were royalists, or simply wanted to defend their homes against Nazi oppression were also Chetniks. In fact, a high ranking officer of Croatian descent was Zvonimir Vučković (Codename Feliks).[12]

Early activities

Upon their formation, Mihailović directed his units to arm themselves and await his attack orders. However, he avoided actions which he judged were of low strategic importance, which meant not engaging the Axis in any major attack. According to him, the reason was humanitarian: the prevention of German reprisals against Serbs.[13] The Chetniks, as a royalist force, quickly gained the support of Winston Churchill and the western Allies. In 1942, Time Magazine even featured an article which described Mihailović's Chetniks. Time heralded Mihailović as the "sole defender of freedom in Nazi-occupied Europe". Tito's Partisans, however, did not remain relatively passive and harassed Axis forces since 22 June, establishing the first large liberated piece of Yugoslav territory, the "Republic of Užice".

The Partisans and Chetniks attempted to cooperate, but this quickly fell apart. After fruitless negotiations, Mihailović turned against the Partisans as his main enemy. Chetnik units attacked the Partisans in November 1941, while increasingly receiving supplies and cooperating with the Germans and Italians in this. The British liaison to Mihajlović advised London to stop supplying the Chetniks after their assistance in the German attack on Užice (see First anti-Partisan Offensive), but Britain continued to do so.[1]

In the beginning, however, the Germans did not officially negotiate with the Chetniks and offered a bounty of 100,000 Reichsmarks on both Tito and Mihailović. They introduced exacting punitive measures for guerrilla activities. For example, 100 civilians were to be executed for every German soldier killed, 50 civilians for each German wounded. After the German offensive in the area of Užice, the bulk of the Chetnik forces retreated into eastern Bosnia and Sandžak. There they came into conflict with several formations of the Independent State of Croatia, a Nazi puppet state controlled by the fascist and anti-Serbian Ustaše and the Germans.

Operation Halyard

Harry S. Truman had awarded Chetnik General Draža Mihailović a prestigeius Legion of Merit, pictured, for saving 500 Americans during Operation Halyard. [14][15]
Main article: Operation Halyard

Operation Halyard was the largest Allied airlift operation behind enemy lines, of over 500 Allied airmen downed over Nazi occupied Serbia were saved by Serbian Chetnik guerrillas.[16]

Axis offensives

Main article: Seven anti-Partisan offensives

Later during the War, the Allies were seriously considering an invasion of the Balkans, so the Yugoslav resistance movements increased in strategic importance, and there was a need to determine which of the two factions was fighting the Germans. A number of Special Operations Executive (SOE) agents were sent to Yugoslavia to determine the facts on the ground. In the meantime, the Germans, also aware of the growing importance of Yugoslavia, decided to wipe out the Partisans with determined offensives. The Chetniks, by this time, had agreed to provide support for the German operations, and were in turn granted supplies and munitions to increase their effectiveness.

The first of these large anti-Partisan offensives was Fall Weiss, also known as the Battle of Neretva. The Chetniks participated with a significant, 20,000-strong, force providing assistance to the German and Italian encirclement from the east (the far bank of the river Neretva). However, Tito's Partisans managed to break through the encirclement, cross the river, and engage the Chetniks. The conflict resulted in a near-total Partisan victory, after which the Chetniks were almost entirely incapacitated in the area west of the Drina river. The Partisans continued on, and later again escaped the Germans in the Battle of Sutjeska.

In the meantime, the Allies stopped planning an invasion of the Balkans and finally rescinded their support for the Chetniks and instead supplied the Partisans. At the Teheran Conference of 1943 and the Yalta Conference of 1945, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill decided to split their influence in Yugoslavia in half.

Loss of support and final war years

File:Document from William Donovan, head of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS).jpg
Document from William Donovan, head of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), stating that his intelligence unit in Yugoslavia personally observed Partizans attacking Chetniks while Chetniks were fighting Germans. .

To gather intelligence, agents of the western Allies were infiltrated into both the Partisans and the Chetniks. The intelligence gathered by liaisons to the resistance groups was crucial to the success of supply missions and was the primary influence on Allied strategy in Yugoslavia. The search for intelligence ultimately resulted in the demise of the Chetniks and their eclipse by Tito’s Partisans. In 1942, though supplies were limited, token support was sent equally to each. The new year would bring a change. The Germans were executing Operation Schwarz (the Battle of Sutjeska, i.e., the Fifth anti-Partisan offensive), one of a series of offensives aimed at the resistance fighters, when F.W.D. Deakin was sent by the British to gather information.

His reports contained two important observations. The first was that the Partisans were courageous and aggressive in battling the German 1st Mountain and 104th Light Division, had suffered significant casualties, and required support. The second observation was that the entire German 1st Mountain Division had transited from Russia on rail lines through Chetnik-controlled territory. British intercepts (ULTRA) of German message traffic confirmed Chetnik timidity. All in all, intelligence reports resulted in increased Allied interest in Yugoslavia air operations, and a shift in policy. In September 1943, at Churchill’s request, Brigadier Fitzroy Maclean was parachuted to Tito’s headquarters near Drvar to serve as a permanent, formal liaison to the Partisans. While the Chetniks were still occasionally supplied, the Partisans received the bulk of all future support.[2]

Thus, after the Tehran Conference the Partisans received official recognition as the legitimate national liberation force by the Allies, who subsequently set-up the RAF Balkan Air Force (under the influence and suggestion of Brigadier Fitzroy MacLean) with the aim to provide increased supplies and tactical air support for Marshal Tito's Partisan forces. On 14 August 1944, the Tito-Šubašić agreement between Partisans and the Government in exile was signed on the island of Vis. The document called on all Croats, Slovenes, and Serbs to join the Partisans. Mihailović and the Chetniks refused to accept the Royal Government's agreement and continued to engage the Partisans, by now the official Yugoslav Allied force. Consequently on 29 August 1944, King Peter II dismissed Mihailović as Chief-of-Staff of the Yugoslav Army and on 12 September appointed Marshal Josip Broz Tito in his place. In late 1944, the leader of the Serbian fifth column, Milan Nedić, transferred all fascist Serbian troops under his command to Mihailović.[17]

Throughout the war the Chetniks were nevertheless involved in operations in which Allied (mostly United States) airmen were rescued and sheltered from the occupation forces.[18][19] The largest of these operations came to be Operation Halyard, which took place shortly before the Chetnik movement was destroyed in 1945. Due to the efforts of Major Richard L. Felman, President Harry S. Truman posthumously awarded Mihailović the "Legion of Merit", for the rescue of American Airmen (Operation Airbridge). This award and the was classified secret by the United States Department of State so as not to offend Yugoslavs.

Finally, in April and May 1945, as the victorious Partisans took possession of the country's territory, many Chetniks retreated toward Italy and a smaller group toward Austria. Many were captured by the Partisans or returned to Yugoslavia by British forces while a number were killed afterwards at Bleiburg. Some were tried for treason and were sentenced to prison terms or death. Many were summarily executed, especially in the first months after the end of the war. Mihailović and his few remaining followers tried to fight their way back to the Ravna Gora, but he was captured by Partisan forces. In March 1946, Mihailović was brought to Belgrade, where he was tried and executed on charges of treason in July. During the closing years of World War II, many Chetniks defected from their units, as the Partisan commander-in-chief, Marshal Josip Broz Tito, proclaimed a general amnesty to all defecting forces for a time.[20]

Axis collaboration

File:Meeting between German, Chetniks and Ustaša commander.jpg
German General Major Friedrich Stahl stands alongside an Ustaše officer and Chetnik Commander Rade Radić in central Bosnia
See also: Serbian Military Administration

Throughout the War, parts of the Chetnik movement remained almost completely inactive against the occupation forces, and increasingly collaborated with the Axis, losing its international recognition as the Yugoslav resistance force.[1][2][3][4] After a brief initial period of cooperation, the Partisans and the Chetniks quickly started fighting against each other. Gradually, the Chetniks ended up primarily fighting the Partisans[21] instead of the occupation forces, and started cooperating with the Axis in their struggle to destroy the resistance, receiving increasing amounts of logistical assistance (in particular, from Italy).[4]

At the start of the conflict, Chetnik forces were merely relatively inactive towards the occupation, and negotiated with the Partisans. This changed when these talks broke down, and they proceeded to attack the latter (who were actively fighting the Germans), while continuing to engage the Axis only in minor skirmishes. Attacking the Germans provoked strong retaliation, and the Chetniks increasingly negotiated with them. Negotiations were aided by their mutual goal of destroying the Partisans. This collaboration first appeared during the attack on the Partisan "Užice Republic", where Chetniks played a part in the general Axis attack.[2]

In Italian-controlled Dalmatia and Montenegro, the Chetniks made deals with occupation forces to gain munitions and support in their bid to destroy the Partisans.[22] During this time, the Chetnik movement continued to receive support from the western Allies, against the better judgment of the British liaison to Mihailović.[1]

The cooperation and support between the Axis forces and the Chetniks deepened as Yugoslavia's strategic importance increased. Anticipating an Allied invasion in the Balkans, the Germans acquired all available assistance in destroying the Partisans. An agreement was reached by which Chetnik forces would collaborate in the coming operation, known as Fall Weiss. A Chetnik force of 20,000 coordinated with the Axis in the offensive, but was badly beaten when the Partisans managed to escape. The subsequent Partisan strategic victory at the Battle of Sutjeska increased the numbers and reputation of the Partisans. This, along with favorable reports by Brigadier General Fitzroy Maclean and F.W.D. Deakin, caused the Allies to officially and fully support the Partisans, which was announced later that year (1943) at the Tehran Conference.[1]

The loss of Allied support caused the Chetniks to lean more than ever towards the Germans for assistance against the Partisans. On 14 August 1944, the Tito-Šubašić agreement between the Partisans and the Government in exile was signed on the island of Vis. The document called on all Croats, Slovenes, and Serbs to join the Partisans. Mihailović and the Chetniks refused to accept the Royal Government's agreement and continued to engage the Partisans, by now the official Yugoslav Allied force. Consequently on 29 August 1944, King Peter II dismissed Mihailović as Chief-of-Staff of the Yugoslav Army and on 12 September appointed Marshal Josip Broz Tito in his place.

In occupied Serbia, the Germans installed Milan Aćimović as leader, and later the former Minister of War, General Milan Nedić, who governed until 1944. Nedić formed his own troops, the Serbian State Guard, made up of ex-members of the Royal Yugoslav Army. However, his forces were also augmented by several formations of Chetniks, one under the pre-war leader Kosta Pećanac (this formation was independent of Mihajlović). The former led a force of around 3,000 men in southern Serbia, and felt that he, as a man with 40 years of service, was senior to Mihailović. In 1944, having lost all Allied recognition, Mihailović was granted command over the entire military force of Nedić's Serbia, including the Serbian State Guard. The commanding officer of the Abwehr (German intelligence) in Split stated:[6]

Chetniks... our natural allies. Only they are fighting! "Kroatische Kampfgemeinschaft" exists only on paper.... We cannot abandon the only allies we have [Chetniks] in this cursed country [Sauland (Croatia)]... Chetniks are the only useful fellow combatants.

General Edmund Glaise von Horstenau and Field Marshal Maximilian von Weichs commented:

The units that could really be used against the Partisans were Serbian and partly Russian volunteers and - Draža Mihailović's people. My liaison officer with them was a certain Major, Ritterkreuztraeger.

— General Edmund Glaise von Horstenau[23]

Though he himself [Draža Mihailović] shrewdly refrained from giving his personal view in public, no doubt to have a free hand for every eventuality (e.g. Allied landing on the Balkans), he allowed his commanders to negotiate with Germans and to co-operate with them. And they did so, more and more...

— Field Marshal Maximilian von Weichs, 1945[24]

As the war drew to a close, Chetnik forces continued to fight the Partisans and later the Red Army alongside German forces. The movement was by this time, though commanded by Mihailović, plagued with a lack of discipline. Splinter factions emerged, one of which was the Montenegrin People's Army led by Pavle Đurišić which, in a belated bid for Allied recognition, unsuccessfully attacked Ustaše formations in what is known as the Battle on Lijevča field.

Ethnic cleansing

See also: Ethnic cleansing

As part of his opportunist policies in support of the creation of Greater Serbia, the Chetnik supreme commander Draža Mihailović issued the following "Instructions" (Serbian: Instrukcije) to his commanders on 20 December 1941:


The mission of our units is:

  1. The struggle for the freedom of all of our people under the scepter of His Majesty, the King Peter II;
  2. The creation of Greater Yugoslavia, and within it Greater Serbia, ethnically clean within the borders of Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Srem, Banat, and Bačka;
  3. The struggle for the incorporation into our social structure of those non-liberated Slovenian territories under Italy and Germany (Trieste, Gorizia, Istria, and Carinthia), as well as Bulgaria and northern Albania with Shkodra;
  4. The cleansing of all national minorities and anti-state elements from state territory;
  5. The creation of direct common borders between Serbia and Montenegro, as well as Serbia and Slovenia by cleansing the Bosniak population from Sandžak, and the Bosniak and Croat populations from Bosnia and Herzegovina;
  6. The punishment of all Croats and Bosniaks who have mercilessly destroyed our people in these tragic days;
  7. The settlement of the areas cleansed of national minorities and anti-state elements by Serbs and Montenegrins (to be considered are poor, nationally patriotic, and honest families).

There may be no collaboration with the communists [Partisans], as they are fighting against the Dynasty and in favor of socialist revolution. Albanians, Bosniaks, and Ustaše [Croats] are to be treated in accordance with their merit for the horrendous crimes against our population, i.e. they are to be turned over to the People's Court. The Croats living on the territory under Italian occupation [Dalmatians] are to be treated based on their disposition at the given moment.

The exact number of Bosniak, Croat and other civilians murdered under the direct command of Mihailović's Chetniks has never been established. In his book Crimes Against Bosnian Muslims 1941-1945, historian Šemso Tucaković estimated that out of 150,000 Bosniaks who lost their lives in World War II, some 100,000 were murdered by Chetniks. He also listed at least 50,000 Bosnian Muslim names directly known to have been killed by Chetniks. According to World Wsar II historian Vladimir Žerjavić, approximately 29,000 Muslims and 18,000 Croats were killed by Chetniks during World War II.[25] Žerjavić's figures have also been cited as too conservative and figures of up to 300,000 non-Serbs have been suggested.[26]

Some of the major World War II Chetnik massacres against ethnic Croats and Bosniaks include:[27][28][29]

  • July 1941, Herzegovina (Bileća, Stolac) - approximately 1,150 civilians killed;
  • December 1941/January 1942, eastern Bosnia (Foča, Goražde) - approximately 2,050 civilians killed;
  • August 1942, eastern Bosnia and Sandžak (Foča, Bukovica) - approximately 1,000 civilians killed;
  • August 1942, eastern Bosnia (Ustikolina, Jahorina) - approximately 2,500 civilians killed;
  • September 1942, southern Dalmatia (Makarska) - approximately 900 civilians killed;
  • October 1942, Herzegovina (Prozor) - approximately 2,500 civilians killed;
  • January 1943, Sandžak (Bijelo Polje) - approximately 1,500 civilians killed;
  • February 1943, eastern Bosnia and Sandžak (Foča, Čajniče, Pljevlja) - approximately +9,200 civilians killed. The largest single Chetnik massacre of World War II.

Mihailović was captured on 13 March 1946 by agents of the Yugoslav security agency, the Organ Zaštite Naroda (Armije) (OZNA). He was charged on 47 counts. The court found him guilty on 8 counts, including crimes against humanity and high treason. The trial lasted from 10 June to 15 July. He was found guilty and sentenced to death by firing squad on 15 July. The Presidium of the National Assembly rejected the clemency appeal on 16 July. He was executed together with nine other officers in the early hours of 18 July 1946, in Lisičiji Potok, about 200 meters from the former Royal Palace, and buried in an unmarked grave on the same spot. His main prosecutor was Miloš Minić, later Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Yugoslav Government.

SFR Yugoslavia

After the end of World War II, the Chetniks were banned in the new Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 29 November 1945, King Peter II was deposed by the Yugoslav Constituent Assembly after an overwhelming referendum result. Chetnik leaders either escaped the country or were arrested by the authorities. On 13 March 1946, Draža Mihailović was captured by OZNA, the Yugoslav security agency. He was put to trial, found guilty of high treason against Yugoslavia, sentenced to death he was duly executed on July 18. Later, Momčilo Đujić formed the 'Movement of Serbian Chetniks of Ravna Gora' in the United States and Canada.[30]

Recent history

Yugoslav Wars

Main article: Yugoslav Wars

During the Yugoslav wars, Serb paramilitaries often self-identified and were referred to as Chetniks.[31] Vojislav Šešelj's Serbian Radical Party formed the White Eagles which was identified as Chetniks.[32] Vuk Drašković's Serbian Renewal Movement was closely associated with the Serbian Guard, which was also associated with Chetniks and monarchism.[33]

During the war five Serb soldiers received the title of Chetnik voivodes from World War II veteran Momčilo Đujić: Rade Čubrilo, Slavko Aleksić, Branislav Gavrilović, Rade Radović, and Mitar Mandić.[34] Rade Čubrilo became the flag-bearer of Đujić's former unit, the Dinara Chetnik Division.[34] Serb politician Vojislav Šešelj was also named a voivode prior to the start of the wars by Đujić.[35]

Contemporary period

A Chetnik banquet hall dedicated to Draža Mihailović, found in Canada.

In late 2004, the National Assembly of Serbia passed a new law that equalized the rights of the former Chetnik members with those of the former Partisans, including the right to war pensions. Rights were granted on the basis that both were anti-fascist movements that fought occupiers, and this formulation has entered the law. The vote was 176 for, 24 against and 4 abstained. The Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS) of Slobodan Milošević was the one voting against the decision.

There have been varying reactions to the law in Serbian public opinion. Many have praised it as just and long overdue, including Prince Alexander Karađorđević (son of Peter II, the last Yugoslav king), as well as most political parties (with the most notable exception of Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS)). Others protested the decision, including the Serbian Association of Former Partisans, the Serbian Helsinki Committee for Human Rights, the Croatian Anti-Fascist Movement, and the President and Prime Minister of Croatia.

Since 1992, the Serbian Renewal Movement has annually organized the "Ravna Gora Parliament".[36] In 2005, Croatian president Stipe Mesić cancelled a planned visit to Serbia as it coincided with the gathering, officially supported by the Serbian government, and attended by Vuk Drašković.[37] People who attend the Parliament wear Chetnik-World War II insignia.[38]

Today Chetnik activity is seriously restricted or banned in all neighbouring countries other than Serbia and Republika Srpska in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Milorad Pupovac of the Independent Democratic Serbian Party in Croatia, has called the organization "fascist collaborators".[39] In 2003, the Montenegrin government forbade the building of a statue of Pavle Đurišić near Berane.[40]

The Serbian basketball player Milan Gurović has a tattoo of World War II Chetnik Draža Mihailović on his left arm which has resulted in a ban since 2004 in playing in Croatia under its anti-fascist laws.[41] Turkey has also threatened to enact such a ban.[42] Serbian rocker Bora Đorđević is also a declared Chetnik.[43]

On July 12, 2007, a day after the 12th anniversary of the Srebrenica Genocide and the burial of a further 465 victims, a group of men dressed in Chetnik uniforms marched the streets of Srebrenica. They all wore badges of military units which committed the massacre in July 1995.[44][45][46]

There are some traditional attributes which are parts of the Chetnik´s dress. Traditional chetnik hats are šajkača and šubara.

Modern Chetnik movements include:

  • Serbian Chetnik Movement of Republika Srpska[47]
  • Ravna Gora Chetnik Movement of Republika Srpska, based in Brčko.
  • Serbian Movement of Ravna Gora, with branches in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia.[48]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e David Martin, Ally Betrayed: The Uncensored Story of Tito and Mihailovich (New York: Prentice Hall, 1946), 34.. Cite error: The named reference "autogenerated1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  2. ^ a b c d e Jozo Tomasevich, The Chetniks (Stanford University Press, 1975) [1] Cite error: The named reference "autogenerated2" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  3. ^ a b c d Philip J. Cohen, David Riesman, Serbia's secret war: propaganda and the deceit of history (Texas A&M University Press, 1996) [2]
  4. ^ a b c Sabrina P. Ramet, The three Yugoslavias: state-building and legitimation, 1918-2005 (Indiana University Press, 2006) [3]
  5. ^ http://arhiva.glas-javnosti.rs/arhiva/2003/05/26/srpski/F03052501.shtml www.glas-javnosti.rs
  6. ^ a b Klaus Schmider, Partisanenkrieg in Jugoslawien, Hamburg; Berlin; Bonn 2002, p.492 ; PA/AA, SbvollSO R 27303 Neubacher an Kramarz (21.3.1944)
  7. ^ http://www.ravnagorachetniks.org/istorija_e_2.html
  8. ^ General Mihailović with Zvonko Vučković, commandant of the I. Chetnik Corps. Vučković was an ethnic Croat – officer in the Royal Yugoslav Army.
  9. ^ Uros Sustaric, one of famous Slovene Chetniks Template:Sl icon
  10. ^ http://www.pogledi.rs/casopis/jun2004_7V.jpg Mr. Mustafa Mulalic, a Muslim officer in Chetnik headquarters, together with General Mihailović and Mr. Stevan Moljević (only three of them are in uniform)
  11. ^ http://www.pogledi.rs/galerija/cetnici_i_saveznici/vrhovna_komanda/16V.jpg General Mihailović with Muslim leaders in Bijeljina.
  12. ^ General Mihailović with Zvonko Vuckovic, commandant of 1st Chetnik Corps. Mr. Vuckovic was an ethnic Croat – loyal officer of Royal Yugoslav Army.
  13. ^ Bailey, Ronald H. 1980 (original edition from 1978). Partisans and guerrillas (World War II; v. 12). Chicago, Illinois, USA: Time-Life Books. P. 80
  14. ^ http://www.amazon.com/Forgotten-500-Untold-Greatest-Mission/dp/0451222121
  15. ^ http://www.gregoryafreeman.com/500.html
  16. ^ http://belgrade.usembassy.gov/archives/press/2004/040916.html
  17. ^ http://www.vojska.net/hrv/drugi-svjetski-rat/srbija/srpska-drzavna-straza/ Serbian State Guard
  18. ^ Two airmen who shared a B-24 stint in WWII are reunited - Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
  19. ^ WWII Veterans visit Serbia - Embassy of the United States in Belgrade, Serbia
  20. ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,796967,00.html
  21. ^ Chetnik - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  22. ^ Please refer to sources cited in the Serbian Wikipedia article on Chetnik collaboration in World War II
  23. ^ Peter Broucek, Ein General in Zwielicht; Errinerungen Edmund Glaises von Horstenau, Wien-Koeln-Graz, 1988; p.421
  24. ^ Werner Roehr (zusammengestellt), Europa unterm Hakenkreuz-Okkupation und Kollaboration (1938-1945), 1994, s.358
  25. ^ Vladimir Žerjavić, Response to dr.Bulajić on his writing on Internet of April 8, 1998
  26. ^ Zdravko Dizdar, Chetnik Genocidal Crimes against Croatians and Muslims during World War II (1941-1945)
  27. ^ Noel Malcolm, Bosnia: a Short History (1994) - 188 details Foca-Cajnice massacres
  28. ^ Lampe, Yugoslavia as History, 206, 209, 210
  29. ^ Glenny, The Balkans, 494-495
  30. ^ http://www.novinar.de/2007/12/15/tekst-pisma-vojvode-momcila-episkopu-kanadskom-georgiju-dokicu.html NOVINAR.de » Tekst Pisma Vojvode Momčila - episkopu kanadskom Georgiju (Đokiću) | online novine koje zajedno stvaramo - vesti iz zemlje i sveta
  31. ^ http://www.independent.co.uk/news/harrier-pilot-safe-1370719.html
  32. ^ United Nations Commission on Breaches of Geneva Law in Former Yugoslavia
  33. ^ Giška and guards died for nothing, Glas javnosti
  34. ^ a b Title of voivode only for military service, Danas
  35. ^ The Prosecutor of the Tribunal Against Vojislav Seselj
  36. ^ http://www.b92.net/info/komentari.php?nav_id=197587 Ravna Gora Parliament, 15th time
  37. ^ Predsjednik Mesiæ O Odgodi Posjeta Scg-U
  38. ^ Ravna Gora Parliament
  39. ^ Chetniks "personae non gratae"
  40. ^ RADIO TELEVIZIJA CRNE GORE... Nacionalni javni servis Crne Gore
  41. ^ ISN Security Watch - Serbia rehabilitates Chetniks with pensions
  42. ^ http://arhiva.bljesak.info/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=13422
  43. ^ Bora Čorba kod Hrge: Ponosan sam četnik - Dnevnik.hr
  44. ^ "7th Session of the UN Human Rights Council" (PDF). Society for Threatened Peoples. 2008. p. 2. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |day= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  45. ^ http://www.24sata.hr/index.php?cmd=show_clanak&tekst_id=23230
  46. ^ http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=BBAB&d_place=BBAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=11A6D4D44053A610&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM
  47. ^ Provokacija iz Trebinja: osnovan "Srpski četnički pokret Republike Srpske", Slobodna Dalmacija
  48. ^ The Movement of Serbian Chetniks Ravne Gore Chapters

Bibliography

  • Tomasevich, Jozo, War and Revolution in Yugoslavia: The Chetniks. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975
  • Milazzo, Matteo J., The Chetnik Movement and the Yugoslav Resistance. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975
  • Hoare, Marko A., Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941-1943. London: Oxford University Press, 2006
  • Karchmar, Lucien. Draža Mihailović and the Rise of the Četnik Movement, 1941-1942. New York: Garland Pub., 1987.
  • Lees, Michael. The Rape of Serbia: The British Role in Tito's Grab for Power, 1943-1944. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991.
  • Martin, David. Ally Betrayed: The Uncensored Story of Tito and Mihailović. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1946.
  • Sipcic, Radoje. Vladimir "Vlado" Sipcic, The Last King's Soldier of the Kingdom Paris, FR: Integra; Beograd: Paris, 2004.
  • Martin, David. Patriot or Traitor: The Case of General Mihailović: Proceedings and Report of the Commission of Inquiry of the Committee for a Fair Trial for Draža Mihailović. Hoover Archival Documentaries. Hoover Institution Publication, Volume 191. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 1978.
  • Martin, David. The Web of Disinformation: Churchill’s Yugoslav Blunder. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990.
  • Pavasovic, Mike "Cetniks, Heroes or Villains?" History Today, April, 1992
  • Roberts, Walter R. Tito, Mihailović, and the Allies, 1941–1945. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1973.
  • Trew, Simon. Britain, Mihailović, and the Chetniks, 1941–42. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin’s Press in association with King’s College, London, 1998.
  • Freeman, Gregory A. "The Forgotten 500: The Untold Story of the Men Who Risked All For the Greatest Rescue Mission of World War II" NAL Hardcover 2007, ISBN 0451222121
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