Unmanned aerial vehicle
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An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV; also known as a remotely operated aircraft) is an aircraft that flies without a human crew. Their largest uses are in military applications. To distinguish UAVs from missiles, a UAV is defined as a reusable, uncrewed vehicle capable of controlled, sustained, level flight and powered by a jet or reciprocating engine. Therefore, cruise missiles are not considered UAVs, because, like many other guided missiles, the vehicle itself is a weapon that is not reused, even though it is also unmanned and in some cases remotely guided.
There is a wide variety of UAV shapes, sizes, configurations, and characteristics. Historically, UAVs were simple drones[1] (remotely piloted aircraft), but autonomous control is increasingly being employed in UAVs. UAVs come in two varieties: some are controlled from a remote location, and others fly autonomously based on pre-programmed flight plans using more complex dynamic automation systems.
Currently, military UAVs perform reconnaissance as well as attack missions.[2] While many successful drone attacks on militants have been reported, they are also prone to collateral damage and/or erroneous targeting, as with many other weapon types.[1] UAVs are also used in a small but growing number of civil applications, such as firefighting. UAVs are often preferred for missions that are too "dull, dirty, or dangerous" for manned aircraft.
The abbreviation UAV has been expanded in some cases to UAVS (unmanned-aircraft vehicle system). The Federal Aviation Administration has adopted the generic class unmanned aircraft system (UAS) originally introduced by the U.S. Navy to reflect the fact that these are not just aircraft, but systems, including ground stations and other elements.
History
The earliest UAV was A. M. Low's "Aerial Target" of 1916.[3] A number of remote-controlled airplane advances followed, including the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, during and after World War I, including the first scale RPV (Remote Piloted Vehicle), developed by the film star and model airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny in 1935.[3] More were made in the technology rush during the Second World War; these were used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack missions. Jet engines were applied after WW2, in such types as the Teledyne Ryan Firebee I of 1951, while companies like Beechcraft also got in the game with their Model 1001 for the United States Navy in 1955.[3] Nevertheless, they were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the Vietnam Era.
With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies as seen in the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the US military. UAVs were seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews. Initial generations were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which utilized AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles). An armed UAV is known as an unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV).
The near future will likely see unmanned aircraft employed, offensively, for bombing and ground attack[citation needed]. As a tool for search and rescue, UAVs can help find humans lost in the wilderness, trapped in collapsed buildings, or adrift at sea. While air-to-air combat will likely remain the last domain of the human pilot, when unmanned fighter jets do come about, they will enjoy the advantage of almost unlimited immunity to G-force effects[citation needed].
UAV classification
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UAVs typically fall into one of six functional categories (although multi-role airframe platforms are becoming more prevalent):
- Target and decoy - providing ground and aerial gunnery a target that simulates an enemy aircraft or missile
- Reconnaissance - providing battlefield intelligence
- Combat - providing attack capability for high-risk missions (see Unmanned combat air vehicle)
- Logistics - UAVs specifically designed for cargo and logistics operation
- Research and development - used to further develop UAV technologies to be integrated into field deployed UAV aircraft
- Civil and Commercial UAVs - UAVs specifically designed for civil and commercial applications
They can also be categorised in terms of range/altitude and the following has been advanced as relevant at such industry events as ParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum:
- Handheld 2,000 ft (600 m) altitude, about 2 km range
- Close 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude, up to 10 km range
- NATO type 10,000 ft (3,000 m) altitude, up to 50 km range
- Tactical 18,000 ft (5,500 m) altitude, about 160 km range
- MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) and range over 200 km
- HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over 30,000 ft and indefinite range
- HYPERSONIC high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1-5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) 50,000 ft (15,200 m) or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km
- ORBITAL low earth orbit (Mach 25+)
- CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer
Additional category can be applied in pattern of function: fixed routes vs. dynamically variable routes:
- A Train Cable UAV (TCUAV) is a combination of three concepts: unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs), and trains.
The United States military employs a tier system for categorizing its UAVs.
United States military UAV classifications
The modern concept of U.S. military UAVs is to have the various aircraft systems work together in support of personnel on the ground. The integration scheme is described in terms of a "Tier" system, and is used by military planners to designate the various individual aircraft elements in an overall usage plan for integrated operations. The Tiers do not refer to specific models of aircraft, but rather roles for which various models and their manufacturers competed. The U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Marine Corps each has its own tier system, and the two systems are themselves not integrated.
US Air Force tiers
- Tier N/A: Small/Micro UAV. Role filled by BATMAV (Wasp Block III).[4]
- Tier I: Low altitude, long endurance. Role filled by the Gnat 750.[5]
- Tier II: Medium altitude, long endurance (MALE). Role currently filled by the MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper.
- Tier II+: High altitude, long endurance conventional UAV (or HALE UAV). Altitude: 60,000 to 65,000 feet (19,800 m), less than 300 knots (560 km/h) airspeed, 3,000-nautical-mile (6,000 km) radius, 24 hour time-on-station capability. Complementary to the Tier III- aircraft. Role currently filled by the RQ-4 Global Hawk.
- Tier III-: High altitude, long endurance low-observable UAV. Same parameters as, and complementary to, the Tier II+ aircraft. The RQ-3 DarkStar was originally intended to fulfill this role before it was "terminated."[6][7]
US Marine Corps tiers
- Tier N/A: Micro UAV. Wasp III fills this role, driven largely by the desire for commonality with the USAF BATMAV. [3]
- Tier I: Role currently filled by the Dragon Eye but all ongoing and future procurement for the Dragon Eye program is going now to the RQ-11B Raven B.
- Tier II: Role currently filled by the ScanEagle and, to some extent, the RQ-2 Pioneer.
- Tier III: For two decades, the role of medium range tactical UAV was filled by the Pioneer UAV. In July 2007, the Marine Corps announced its intention to retire the aging Pioneer fleet and transition to the Shadow Tactical Unmanned Aircraft System by AAI Corporation. The first Marine Shadow systems have already been delivered, and training for their respective Marine Corps units is underway.[8][9]
U.S. Army tiers
- Tier I: Small UAV. Role filled by the RQ-11A/B Raven.
- Tier II: Short Range Tactical UAV. Role filled by the RQ-7A/B Shadow 200.
- Tier III: Medium Range Tactical UAV. Role currently filled by the RQ-5A / MQ-5A/B Hunter and IGNAT/IGNAT-ER, but transitioning to the Extended Range Multi-Purpose (ERMP) MQ-1C Warrior.
Future Combat Systems (FCS) (U.S. Army) classes
- Class I: For small units. Role to be filled by all new UAV with some similarity to Micro Air Vehicle.
- Class II: For companies. (cancelled.) [10]
- Class III: For battalions. (cancelled.) [10]
- Class IV: For brigades. Role to be filled by the RQ-8A/B / MQ-8B Fire Scout.
Unmanned aircraft system
UAS, or unmanned aircraft system, is the official U.S. Department of Defense term for an unmanned aerial vehicle. Initially coined by the Navy to reflect the fact that these complex systems include ground stations and other elements besides the actual aircraft, the term was first officially used in the DoD 2005 Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005–2030.[11] Many people have mistakenly used the term Unmanned Aerial System, or Unmanned Air Vehicle System, as these designations were in provisional use at one time or another. The official acronym 'UAS' is not widely used outside military circles, however, as the term UAV has become part of the modern lexicon.
The military role of unmanned aircraft systems is growing at unprecedented rates. In 2005, tactical- and theater-level unmanned aircraft alone had flown over 100,000 flight hours in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, in which they are organized under Task Force Liberty in Afghanistan and Task Force ODIN in Iraq. Rapid advances in technology are enabling more and more capability to be placed on smaller airframes which is spurring a large increase in the number of Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (SUAS) being deployed on the battlefield. One third of the planes that the air force officially plans to buy in the future are to be unmanned. [12]
The use of SUAS in combat is so new that no formal DoD wide reporting procedures have been established to track SUAS flight hours. As the capabilities grow for all types of UAS, nations continue to subsidize their research and development leading to further advances enabling them to perform a multitude of missions. UAS no longer only perform intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions, although this still remains their predominant type. Their roles have expanded to areas including electronic attack, strike missions, suppression and/or destruction of enemy air defense, network node or communications relay, combat search and rescue, and derivations of these themes. These UAS range in cost from a few thousand dollars to tens of millions of dollars, with aircraft ranging from less than one pound to over 40,000 pounds.
UAV functions
UAVs perform a wide variety of functions. The majority of these functions are some form of remote sensing; this is central to the reconnaissance role most UAVs fulfill. Less common UAV functions include interaction and transport.
Remote sensing
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UAV remote sensing functions include electromagnetic spectrum sensors, biological sensors, and chemical sensors. A UAV's electromagnetic sensors typically include visual spectrum, infrared, or near infrared cameras as well as radar systems. Other electromagnetic wave detectors such as microwave and ultraviolet spectrum sensors may also be used, but are uncommon. Biological sensors are sensors capable of detecting the airborne presence of various microorganisms and other biological factors. Chemical sensors use laser spectroscopy to analyze the concentrations of each element in the air.
Transport
UAVs can transport goods using various means based on the configuration of the UAV itself. Most payloads are stored in an internal payload bay somewhere in the airframe. For many helicopter configurations, external payloads can be tethered to the bottom of the airframe. With fixed wing UAVs, payloads can also be attached to the airframe, but aerodynamics of the aircraft with the payload must be assessed. For such situations, payloads are often enclosed in aerodynamic pods for transport.
Scientific research
Unmanned aircraft are uniquely capable of penetrating areas which may be too dangerous for piloted craft. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) began utilizing the Aerosonde unmanned aircraft system in 2006 as a hurricane hunter. AAI Corporation subsidiary Aerosonde Pty Ltd. of Victoria (Australia), designs and manufactures the 35-pound system, which can fly into a hurricane and communicate near-real-time data directly to the National Hurricane Center in Florida. Beyond the standard barometric pressure and temperature data typically culled from manned hurricane hunters, the Aerosonde system provides measurements far closer to the water’s surface than previously captured. Further applications for unmanned aircraft can be explored once solutions have been developed for their accommodation within national airspace, an issue currently under discussion by the Federal Aviation Administration.
Armed attacks
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MQ-1 Predator UAVs armed with Hellfire missiles are now used as platforms for hitting ground targets in sensitive areas. Armed Predators were first used in late 2001 from bases in Pakistan and Uzbekistan, mostly for targeted assassinations inside Afghanistan. Since then, there were several reported cases of such assassinations taking place in Pakistan, this time from Afghan-based Predators. The advantage of using an unmanned vehicle, rather than a manned aircraft in such cases, is to avoid a diplomatic embarrassment should the aircraft be shot down and the pilots captured, since the bombings took place in countries deemed friendly and without the official permission of those countries.[13][14][15][16]
A Predator, based in a neighboring Arab country, was used to kill suspected al-Qaeda terrorists in Yemen on November 3, 2002. This marked the first use of an armed Predator as an attack aircraft outside of a theater of war such as Afghanistan.[17]
Questions have been raised about the accuracy of the targeting of UAVs. In March 2009, The Guardian reported that Israeli UAVs armed with missiles killed 48 Palestinian civilians in the Gaza Strip, including two small children in a field and a group of women and girls in an otherwise empty street.[18] In June, Human Rights Watch investigated six UAV attacks which resulted in civilian casualties, and found that Israeli forces either failed to take all feasible precautions to verify that the targets were combatants, or failed to distinguish between combatants and civilians.[19][20][21] In July 2009, Brookings Institution released a report stating that in the United States-led drone attacks in Pakistan, ten civilians died for every militant killed.[22][23] S. Azmat Hassan, a former ambassador of Pakistan, said in July 2009 that American UAV attacks were turning Pakistani opinion against the United States, and that 35 or 40 such attacks only killed 8 or 9 top al-Qaeda operatives.[24]
Search and rescue
UAVs will likely play an increased role in search and rescue in the United States. This was demonstrated by the successful use of UAVs during the 2008 hurricanes that struck Louisiana and Texas.
For example, Predators, operating between 18,000-29,000 feet above sea level, performed search and rescue and damage assessment. Payloads carried were an optical sensor, (which is a daytime and infra red camera), and a synthetic aperture radar. The Predator's SAR is a sophisticated all-weather sensor capable of providing photographic-like images through clouds, rain or fog, and in daytime or nighttime conditions; all in real-time. A concept of coherent change detection in SAR images allows for exceptional search and rescue ability: photos taken before and after the storm hits are compared and a computer highlights areas of damage.[25][26]
Design and development considerations
UAV design and production is a global activity, with manufacturers all across the world. The United States and Israel were initial pioneers in this technology, and U.S. manufacturers have a market share of over 60% in 2006, with U.S. market share due to increase by 5-10% through 2016.[27] Northrop Grumman and General Atomics are the dominant manufacturers in this industry, on the strength of the Global Hawk and Predator/Mariner systems.[27] Israeli and European manufacturers form a second tier due to lower indigenous investments, and the governments of those nations have initiatives to acquire U.S. systems due to higher levels of capability.[27] European market share represented just 4% of global revenue in 2006.[27]
Development costs for American military UAVs, as with most military programs, have tended to overrun their initial estimates. This is mostly due to changes in requirements during development and a failure to leverage UAV development programs over multiple armed services. This has caused United States Navy UAV programs to increase from zero to five percent in cost while United States Air Force UAV programs have increased from 60 to 284 percent.[28]
Degree of autonomy
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Early UAVs used during the Vietnam War after launch captured video that was recorded to film or tape on the aircraft. These aircraft often were launched and flew either in a straight line or in preset circles collecting video until they ran out of fuel and landed. After landing, the film was recovered for analysis. Because of the simple nature of these aircraft, they were often called drones. As new radio control systems became available, UAVs were often remote controlled and the term "remotely piloted vehicle" came into vogue. Today's UAVs often combine remote control and computerized automation. More sophisticated versions may have built-in control and/or guidance systems to perform low-level human pilot duties such as speed and flight-path stabilization, and simple scripted navigation functions such as waypoint following. In news and other discussions, often the term "drone" is still mistakenly used to refer to these more sophisticated aircraft.
From this perspective, most early UAVs are not autonomous at all. In fact, the field of air-vehicle autonomy is a recently emerging field, whose economics is largely driven by the military to develop battle-ready technology. Compared to the manufacturing of UAV flight hardware, the market for autonomy technology is fairly immature and undeveloped. Because of this, autonomy has been and may continue to be the bottleneck for future UAV developments, and the overall value and rate of expansion of the future UAV market could be largely driven by advances to be made in the field of autonomy.
Autonomy technology that is important to UAV development falls under the following categories:
- Sensor fusion: Combining information from different sensors for use on board the vehicle
- Communications: Handling communication and coordination between multiple agents in the presence of incomplete and imperfect information
- Path planning: Determining an optimal path for vehicle to go while meeting certain objectives and mission constraints, such as obstacles or fuel requirements
- Trajectory Generation (sometimes called Motion planning): Determining an optimal control maneuver to take to follow a given path or to go from one location to another
- Trajectory Regulation: The specific control strategies required to constrain a vehicle within some tolerance to a trajectory
- Task Allocation and Scheduling: Determining the optimal distribution of tasks amongst a group of agents, with time and equipment constraints
- Cooperative Tactics: Formulating an optimal sequence and spatial distribution of activities between agents in order to maximize chance of success in any given mission scenario
Autonomy is commonly defined as the ability to make decisions without human intervention. To that end, the goal of autonomy is to teach machines to be "smart" and act more like humans. The keen observer may associate this with the development in the field of artificial intelligence made popular in the 1980s and 1990s such as expert systems, neural networks, machine learning, natural language processing, and vision. However, the mode of technological development in the field of autonomy has mostly followed a bottom-up approach, such as hierarchical control systems[29], and recent advances have been largely driven by the practitioners in the field of control science, not computer science. Similarly, autonomy has been and probably will continue to be considered an extension of the controls field.
To some extent, the ultimate goal in the development of autonomy technology is to replace the human pilot. It remains to be seen whether future developments of autonomy technology, the perception of the technology, and most importantly, the political climate surrounding the use of such technology, will limit the development and utility of autonomy for UAV applications. Also as a result of this, synthetic vision for piloting has not caught on in the UAV arena as it did with manned aircraft. NASA utilized synthetic vision for test pilots on the HiMAT program in the early 1980s (see photo), but the advent of more autonomous UAV autopilots, greatly reduced the need for this technology.
Interoperable UAV technologies became essential as systems proved their mettle in military operations, taking on tasks too challenging or dangerous for troops. NATO addressed the need for commonality through STANAG (Standardization Agreement) 4586. According to a NATO press release, the agreement began the ratification process in 1992. Its goal was to allow allied nations to easily share information obtained from unmanned aircraft through common ground control station technology. STANAG 4586 - aircraft that adhere to this protocol are equipped to translate information into standardized message formats; likewise, information received from other compliant aircraft can be transferred into vehicle-specific messaging formats for seamless interoperability. Amendments have since been made to the original agreement, based on expert feedback from the field and an industry panel known as the Custodian Support Team. Edition Two of STANAG 4586 is currently under review. There are many systems available today that are developed in accordance with STANAG 4586, including products by industry leaders such as AAI Corporation, CDL Systems, and Raytheon, all three of which are members of the Custodian Support Team for this protocol.
Endurance
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Because UAVs are not burdened with the physiological limitations of human pilots, they can be designed for maximized on-station times. The maximum flight duration of unmanned, aerial vehicles varies widely. Internal-combustion-engine aircraft endurance depends strongly on the percentage of fuel burned as a fraction of total weight (the Breguet endurance equation), and so is largely independent of aircraft size. Solar-electric UAVs hold potential for unlimited flight, a concept originally championed by the Aerovironment Helios Prototype, which was destroyed in a 2003 crash. One of the major problems with UAVs is no capability for inflight refueling. Currently the US Air Force is promoting research that should end in an inflight UAV refueling capability, which should be available by 2010.
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is to sign a contract on building an UAV which should have an enormous endurance capability of about 5 years. The project is entitled "Vulture". The developers are certain neither on the design of the UAV nor on what fuel it should run to be able to stay in air without any maintenance for such a long period of time.[30]
UAV | Flight time | Date | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric | 82 hours 37 minutes | 28-31 July 2008 | [31] |
Boeing Condor | 58 hours, 11 minutes | ? | The aircraft is currently in the Hiller Aviation Museum, CA. |
QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric | 54 hours | September 2007 | [33][34] |
IAI Heron | 52 hours | ? | [35] |
AC Propulsion Solar Electric | 48 hours, 11 minutes | June 3, 2005 | [36] |
MQ-1 Predator | 40 hours, 5 minutes | ? | [37] |
GNAT-750 | 40 hours | 1992 | [38][39] |
TAM-5 | 38 hours, 52 minutes | August 11, 2003 | Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic |
Aerosonde | 38 hours, 48 minutes | May 3, 2006 | [42] |
I-GNAT | 38 hours, landed with 10-hour reserve | ? | [43] |
RQ-4 Global Hawk | 36 hours | ? | [44][45] |
Aerosonde "Laima" | 26 hours, 45 minutes | August 21, 1998 | First UAV to cross the Atlantic |
Vulture(UAV) | Has not flown. Potential endurance 5 years | ? | A DARPA project - [30] |
Existing UAV systems
UAVs have been developed and deployed by many countries around the world. For a list of models by country, see : List of unmanned aerial vehicles
The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km is restricted in many countries by the Missile Technology Control Regime.
Other information
- During the Gulf War, Iraqi Army forces surrendered to the UAVs of the USS Wisconsin.
- In October, 2002, a few days before the U.S. Senate vote on the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution, about 75 senators were told in closed session that Saddam Hussein had the means of delivering biological and chemical weapons of mass destruction by UAV drones that could be launched from ships off the Atlantic coast to attack U.S. eastern seaboard cities. Colin Powell suggested in his presentation to the United Nations that they had been transported out of Iraq and could be launched against the U.S.[48] It was later revealed that Iraq's UAV fleet consisted of only a few outdated Czech training drones.[49] At the time, there was a vigorous dispute within the intelligence community as to whether CIA's conclusions about Iraqi UAVs were accurate. The U.S. Air Force agency most familiar with UAVs denied outright that Iraq possessed any offensive UAV capability.[50]
- In December 2002, the first ever dogfight involving a UAV occurred when an Iraqi MiG-25 and a U.S. RQ-1 Predator fired missiles at each other. The MiG's missile destroyed the Predator.[51]
- UAVs have been used in many episodes of the science-fiction television series Stargate SG-1, and a sentient unmanned, combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) was a central figure in the action film Stealth. Also UAVs are used in a computer game F.E.A.R. in several missions, when the main character (Point Man) is searching for important data in Armacham Technology Corporation (ATC) headquarters. They are also used in the "Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon" Video Game Series as a very useful feature in many levels.
See also
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- List of unmanned aerial vehicles
- Miniature UAVs
- Aerobot
- Energy harvesting
- Micro air vehicle
- Radio-controlled aircraft
- Train Cable UAV (TCUAV)
- Historic
- Facilities, units and programs
- 82d Aerial Targets Squadron
- ParcAberporth, Royal Air Force facility
- TIHA, Turkish program
- International Aerial Robotics Competition
- UAV Battlelab, U.S. Air Force facility
- Other types of unmanned vehicles
- Unmanned Aircraft System
- Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle
- Unmanned Ground Vehicle
- Unmanned space vehicle
- Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
- Remotely Operated Vehicle
- Intelligence
- Intelligence collection management
- Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance
- MASINT
References
- ^ a b Pir Zubair Shah, "Pakistan Says U.S. Drone Kills 13", New York Times, June 18, 2009.
- ^ David Axe, "Strategist: Killer Drones Level Extremists’ Advantage", Wired, June 17, 2009.
- ^ a b c Taylor, A. J. P. Jane's Book of Remotely Piloted Vehicles.
- ^ [1]
- ^ History of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
- ^ Comparison of USAF Tier II, II+ and III- systems
- ^ http://www.edwards.af.mil/articles98/docs_html/splash/may98/cover/Tier.htm USAF Tier system
- ^ USMC powerpoint presentation of tier system
- ^ Detailed description of USMC tier system
- ^ a b [2]
- ^ http://www.acq.osd.mil/usd/Roadmap%20Final2.pdf#search=%22Dod%20UAS%20Roadmap%202005%22
- ^ [http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/1007_defense_prioirties_chat.aspx
- ^ Fox News
- ^ Defense Industry Daily
- ^ MSNBC
- ^ Globe and Mail
- ^ Federation of American Scientists
- ^ The Guardian, 23 March 2009. "Cut to pieces: the Palestinian family drinking tea in their courtyard: Israeli unmanned aerial vehicles—the dreaded drones—caused at least 48 deaths in Gaza during the 23-day offensive." Retrieved on August 3, 2009.
- ^ "Precisely Wrong: Gaza Civilians Killed by Israeli Drone-Launched Missiles", Human Rights Watch, 30 June 2009.
- ^ "Report: IDF used RPV fire to target civilians", YNET, 30 June 2009
- ^ "Israel/Gaza: Civilians must not be targets: Disregard for Civilians Underlies Current Escalation". Human Rights Watch. 2008-12-30. Retrieved 2009-08-03.
- ^ Drones kill 10 civilians for one militant: US report, Dawn (newspaper), 2009-07-21
- ^ "Do Targeted Killings Work?", Brookings Institution, 2009-07-14
- ^ Newsweek, July 8, 2009. Anita Kirpalani, "Drone On. Q&A: A former Pakistani diplomat says America's most useful weapon is hurting the cause in his country." Retrieved on August 3, 2009.
- ^ AP Texas News
- ^ 2008 Search and Rescue Missions
- ^ a b c d "UAVs on the Rise." Dickerson, L. Aviation Week & Space Technology. January 15, 2007.
- ^ Defense Acquisitions: Opportunities Exist to Achieve Greater Commonality and Efficiencies among Unmanned Aircraft Systems
- ^ Shim, D. H, Kim, H. J., Sastry, S., Hierarchical Control System Synthesis for Rotorcraft-based Unmanned Aerial Vehicles.
- ^ a b Vulture - The Unmanned Aircraft Able to Stay in the Air for 5 Years
- ^ QinetiQ press release
- ^ Hiller Aviation Museum reference to the flight
- ^ QinetiQ press release
- ^ New Scientist article
- ^ NOVA PBS TV program reference IAI reference
- ^ AC Propulsion release describing the flight
- ^ UAV Forum reference Federation of American Scientists reference
- ^ Directory of US Military Rockets and Missiles reference to the flight
- ^ UAV Endurance Prehistory reference
- ^ TAM Homepage
- ^ TAM-5 FAQ page
- ^ Aerosonde release on the flight
- ^ General Atomics reference to the flight
- ^ Space Daily story on the flight
- ^ RAND Corporation report
- ^ Aerosonde Laima page
- ^ Seattle Museum of Flight
- ^ Senator Bill Nelson (January 28, 2004) "New Information on Iraq's Possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction", Congressional Record
- ^ Lowe, C. (December 16, 2003) "Senator: White House Warned of UAV Attack," Defense Tech
- ^ Hammond, J. (November 14, 2005) "The U.S. 'intelligence failure' and Iraq's UAVs" The Yirmeyahu Review
- ^ Pilotless Warriors Soar To Success, www.cbsnews.com, 25 April 2004. Accessed 21 April 2007.
External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- History & Articles
- VTOL UAVs
- History of WWI-era UAVs - Remote Piloted Aerial Vehicles : The 'Aerial Target' and 'Aerial Torpedo' in the USA
- "Human Pilots: Who Needs 'Em?" — Wired News, 23 November 2003
- "Drone aircraft may prowl U.S. skies"- c|net News, 29 Mar 2006
- Organizations and current news