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Aisha bint Abu Bakr (612 - 678) (Arabic: عائشة transliteration: ʿāʾisha, [ʕaːʔɪʃæh], also transcribed as A'ishah, Aisyah, Ayesha, A'isha, Aishat, Aishah, or Aisha) was one of Muhammad's wives.[1] In Islamic writings, her name is thus often prefixed by the title "Mother of the Believers" (Arabic: أمّ المؤمنين umm-al-mu'minīn), per the description of Muhammad's wives in the Qur'an.[2][3][4] Aisha was betrothed to Muhammad at the age of six and the marriage was consummated when she was nine years old.

According to Sunni views, Aisha had an important role in early Islamic history, both during Muhammad's life and after his death. Regarded by many as his favorite wife, she was an active figure in numerous events and an important witness to many more. Aisha contributed to the growth, development, and understanding of Islam. Being a role model to a significant amount of others added to her attributions as a consultant regarding Muhammad's prayer and practices, soon introducing herself into a world of politics.[5]

After Muhammad, Aisha was readily involved in continuing his messages. She was present through the reigns of at least the first four caliphs. Her father, Abu Bakr, became the first caliph to succeed Muhammad. The second caliph Umar succeeded Abu Bakr. During the time of the third caliph's reign Aisha rebelled. She did not fully approve of his practices on many occasions, and she wanted to avenge Uthman's death, which she attempted to do in the Battle of the Camel. She participated in the battle by giving speeches, and leading troops on the back of her camel. She ended up losing the battle, but her involvement and determination made a lasting impression.[4]

Early life

Aisha was born in 614 A.D.[6] She was the daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca, one of the Prophets most trusted companions.[7] Aisha was the third and youngest wife of Muhammad.[8] One of Muhammad’s first encounters with Aisha was by her house. Muhammad found her “crying bitterly” because her parents had disciplined her. The Prophet was affected by her tears and in an effort to stop her from crying Muhammad asked her mother to “be gentle with the child for his sake”.[9]

Marriage to Muhammad

The idea to match Aisha with Muhammad was suggested by Khawlah bint Hakim Muhammad’s aunt who became his caregiver after his first wife, Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, died.,[10][11] After this, the previous agreement regarding the marriage of Aisha with Jubayr ibn Mut'im was put aside by common consent. Abu Bakr was uncertain at first “as to the propriety or even legality of marrying his daughter to the Prophet.” [12]

Age at marriage

See also: Criticism of Muhammad § Aisha, and Child marriage

According to Muslim scholars, most of the Hadith about Aisha is fabricated.[13][14][15] According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when she was betrothed to Muhammad and nine when the marriage was consummated.[13][13][14][15][16][17][18] However, al-Tabari records that she was ten.[14] The sources do not offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years.[19][20]

The issue of Aisha's age at the time she was married to Muhammad has been of interest since the earliest days of Islam, and references to her age by early historians are frequent. American historian Denise Spellberg states that "these specific references to the bride's age reinforce Aisha's pre-menarcheal status and, implicitly, her virginity."[14] Early Muslims regarded Aisha's youth as demonstrating her virginity and therefore her suitability as a bride of Muhammad. This issue of her virginity was of great importance to those who supported Aisha's position in the debate of the succession to Muhammad. These supporters considered that as Muhammad's only virgin wife, Aisha was divinely intended for him, and therefore the most credible regarding the debate.[21]

Relationship with Muhammad

In many Muslim traditions, Aisha is described as Muhammad's most beloved or favored wife after his first wife, Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, who died before the migration to Madinah took place.[5][22][22][23][24] There are several hadith, or stories or sayings of Muhammad, that support this belief. One relates that when a companion asked Muhammad, “who is the person you love most in the world?” he responded, “Aisha.” [25] Others relate that Muhammad built Aisha’s apartment so that her door opened directly into the mosque,[25][26] and that she was the only woman with whom Muhammad received revelations.[22][26]

There are also various traditions that reveal the mutual affection between Muhammad and Aisha. He would often just sit and watch her and her friends play with dolls, and on occasion he would even join them.[26][27][28] Additionally, they were close enough that each was able to discern the mood of the other, as many stories relate.[26][27] It is also important to note that there exists evidence that Muhammad did not view himself as entirely superior to Aisha, at least not enough to prevent Aisha from speaking her mind, even at the risk of angering Muhammad. On one such instance, Muhammad’s “announcement of a revelation permitting him to enter into marriages disallowed other men drew from her [Aisha] the retort, ‘It seems to me your Lord hastens to satisfy your desire!’” [5] Furthermore, Muhammad and Aisha had a strong intellectual relationship.[25] Muhammad valued her keen memory and intelligence and so instructed his companions to draw some of their religious practices from her.[25]

Accusation of adultery

The story of accusation of adultery levied against Aisha can be traced to chapter 24 in the book al-Nur in the Quran. As the story goes, Aisha was left behind by mistake at a caravan stop while searching for a missing necklace. Aisha left her howdah in order to search for the missing necklace and her slaves mounted the howdah and prepared it for travel without noticing any difference in weight without Aisha’s presence.[29] Aisha remained at the camp until the next morning when Safwan bin al-Muattal, a nomad and member of Muhammad’s army, found her and brought her back to Muhammad in Medina. The accusations of adultery came from Zainab, who levied the charges against Aisha and Safwan while at the same time Abdullah bin Ubai and Hamna bint Jahsh (Zainab's sister) spread the rumors started about the infidelity.[29] Usama bin Zayd, son of Zayd ibn Harithah, defended Aisha's reputation and Muhammad came to speak directly with Aisha about the rumors. Shortly after this, Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation from God confirming Aisha's innocence. Known as the Surah an-Nur, God had revealed to Muhammad the laws and punishment regarding adultery. Aisha’s accusers faced punishments of up to 80 lashes. Though Aisha’s innocence was confirmed in the eyes of God, the way in which the revelations were told to Muhammad are most important to Quranic commentaries on the book.[29]

Story of the honey

After the daily Asr prayer, Muhammad would visit each of his wives’ apartments to inquire about their well-being. Muhammad was just in the amount of time he spent with them and attention he gave to them.[30] Once Muhammad’s fifth wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh, received some honey from a relative which The Prophet took a particular liking to. As a result, every time Zaynab offered some of this honey to him he would spend a longer time in her apartment. This did not sit well with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar who felt impatient in waiting for their visit from Muhammad, and so they hatched a plan which was later revisited by Aisha. “So Hafsa and I agreed secretly that, if he come to either of us, she would say to him: It seems you have eaten Maghafir (a kind of bad-smelling resin), for I smell in you the smell of Maghafir. We did so and he replied No, but I was drinking honey in the house of Zaynab, the daughter of Jahsh, and I shall never take it again. I have taken an oath as to that, and you should not tell anybody about it”.[31] Soon after this event, Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation, in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God. Some Sunni commentators on the Qur'an sometimes give this story as the "occasion of revelation" for Sura 66, which opens with the following verses: "Prophet, why do you prohibit that which God has made lawful for you, in seeking to please your wives? God is forgiving and merciful. God has given you absolution from such oaths."[32] Word spread to the small Muslim community that Muhammad’s wives were taking advantage of their husband, speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Umar, Hafsa’s father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled; they had admitted their wrongdoing, and harmony was restored.

After Muhammad

After Muhammad's death, which ended Aisha and Muhammad's decade long marriage, Aisha lived fifty more years in and around Medina. Much of her time was spent learning and acquiring knowledge of the Quran, and the Sunnah of Muhammad. Aisha was one of three wives (the other two being Hafsah and Umm Salamah) who memorized the Quran. Like Hafsah, Aisha had her own script of the Quran written after Muhammad's death.[33] During Aisha’s life many prominent customs of Islam, such as veiling and seclusion of women, began. Aisha’s importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition, and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam.[34] Aisha became involved in the politics of early Islam and the first three caliphate reigns; Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman. During a time in Islam when women were not expected, or wanted, to contribute outside of the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in war and even battles, and helped both men and women to understand the practices of Muhammad.[5]

Role during Caliphate

Role during First Caliph & Second Caliph

Aisha’s father, Abu Bakr, had long been well-regarded by Muhammad, having been the first person outside Muhammad's family to publicly convert to Islam. In 622 both of Aisha's parents became muhajirun when Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina in the Hijra. The muhajirun were those loyal enough to follow and are considered the first group of converts to Islam.

After Muhammad's death in 632, the Islamic community was faced with the dilemma of deciding who would stand in his place. Eventually, Abu Bakr was appointed his successor by a committee and became the first caliph.[35] Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his long personal friendship with Muhammad, and his role as father-in-law. As caliph, Abu Bakr was the first to set guidelines for the new position of authority.[14]

Aisha garnered more special privilege in the Islamic community for being known as both a wife of Muhammad and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father’s strong dedication to Islam. For example, she was given the title of al-siddiqa bint al-siddiq, meaning "the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man,"[14] a reference to Abu Bakr's support of the Isra and Mi'raj.

In 634 Abu Bakr fell sick and was unable to recover. Prior to his death, he appointed Umar one of his chief advisers, as the second caliph. .[14] Throughout Umar's time in power Aisha continued to play the role of a consultant in political matters.[14]

Role During the Third Caliph

After Umar died, Uthmān was chosen to be the third caliph. He wanted to promote interest in the Umayyads. Aisha had little involvement with Uthmān for the first couple years, but eventually she found a way into the politics of his reign. She eventually grew to despise Uthmān, and many are unsure of what specifically triggered her eventual opposition towards him. A prominent opposition that arose towards him was when Uthmān mistreated Ammar ibn Yasir (companion of the prophet) by beating him. Aisha became enraged and spoke out publicly saying, "How soon indeed you have forgotten the practice (sunnah) of your prophet and these, his hairs, a shirt, and sandal have not yet perished!" (108).[4] She was showing and telling the people of Medina that Muhammad would not have allowed this sort of act.

As time continued issues of antipathy towards Uthmān continued to arise. Another instance of opposition arose when the people came to Aisha, after Uthmān ignored the rightful punishment for Walid idn Uqbah (Uthmān's brother). Aisha and Uthmān argued with each other, Uthmān eventually made a comment on why Aisha had come and how she was "ordered to stay at home"(111).[4] Arising from this comment, was the question of whether Aisha, and for that matter women, still had the ability to be involved in public affairs. The Muslim community became split, "some sided with Uthmān, but others demanded to know who indeed had better right than Aisha in such matters"(111).[4]

The caliphate's reign took a turn for the worst when Egypt was governed by Abdullah ibn Saad. Abbott reports that Mohammad ibn Abi Hudhaifah of Egypt, an opposer of Uthmān, forged letters in the "Mother's of the Believers" names to the conspirators against Uthmān. The people cut off Uthmān's water and food supply. When Aisha realized the behavior of the crowd, Abbot notes, Aisha could not believe the crowd "would offer such indignities to a widow of Mohammad"(122).[4] She is referencing when Safīyah (one of Muhammed's wives) tried to help Uthmān and got taken by the crowd. Ashtar (a rebel) then approached her about killing Uthmān and the letter, and she claimed she would never want to "command the shedding of the blood of the Muslims and the killing of their Imām" (122), she also claimed she did not write the letters.[4] The city continued to oppose Uthmān, but as for Aisha, her journey to Mecca was approaching. With the journey to Mecca approaching at this time, she wanted to rid herself of the situation. Uthmān heard of her not wanting to hurt him, and he asked her to stay because of her influence on the people, but this did not persuade Aisha, and she continued on her journey with opposition both towards Uthmān and the Egyptians.[4]

In Medina, conspirators, including Mohammad ibn Abi Bakr, broke into Uthmān's house, and eventually Uthmān was murdered. It is not quite sure who murdered Uthmān. Aisha, at this point had been clear of any blame, and was continuing her journey to Mecca. In Mecca, upon hearing about Uthman's death, Aisha rallied support against the new Caliph, (Ali bin Abi Talib), by placing him with the responsibility for Uthmān's murder.[4] To Aisha, Uthmān's murder was seen as a moment to replace Alī with a more suitable Caliph such as her close allies. It was during this time that Aisha led her followers into a battle known as Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) against Alī's forces in Medina. It was at the Battle of Bassorah that was deemed Islam's foremost understanding of a civil war (fitnah). Although Aisha was dedicated to and fully recognized the importance of following God's commandments, she also was committed to maintaining the "secular character" of the Caliphate.[36]

Battle of the Camel

Main article: Battle of the Camel

In 655, Uthman was murdered, which caused the First Fitna.[37]

Professor Leila Ahmed claims that it was during this engagement that Muslims fought Muslims for the first time,[38] in which Aisha was one of the central figures.

Upon arrival back to Mecca after Uthman's death, Aisha, enraged about the murder of Uthman and the election of Ali, gave a speech. She spoke to the people of Mecca "at the sacred spot of Hijr" (131),[4] supposedly created by Abraham. Aisha spoke of his death, and how the murderers "shed sacred blood, desecrated the sacred city, seized sacred funds, and profaned the sacred month" (131).[4] At this point Governor Abd Allah followed in command of Aisha. Others such as Umayyads, those from different provinces, and fugitives from Medina came to support Aisha in her fight. Others also questioned her true feelings towards avenging Uthman's death because she had opposed his reign for so long. Aisha defended her sincerity throughout her life.[4]

When it came time to decide whether to continue on spreading the word about the opposition, Aisha and her advisers believed going to Basrah was the best choice so they could obtain more followers. Aisha was unsure of this idea, but was strongly urged to keep going. Abbott reports that over a thousand people followed Aisha, but only one "Mother of the Believers" followed en-suit, Hafsah. Aisha's "sisters" traveled with her and the group until reaching Dhat Irq, where they cried and said goodbye, the day known as "The Day of Weeping" (138).[4]

The continuation of the journey brought Aisha closer to Basra, where she received a notice from Umm Salamah urging her not to continue, and her participation in the battle is not womanly. She did not back down, but rode her camel, which was known to be the best in Arabia. At one point on the journey to Basrah, Aisha became scared and didn't want to continue on. Aisha's followers managed to convince her to continue despite of her doubts and fears. During their time at Basrah, there was much political happenings that occurred between Egypt, Ali, and Aisha.[4]

When the battle occurred, Aisha rode out on her camel with Kab ibn Sur. He was killed by an arrow and she was left alone to command her troops. Aisha regularly tried to give speeches to her followers. Arrows flew all around her, and many of the warriors came to protect her. Many of Aisha's protectors died trying to defend her. Ali "gave orders to hamstring the animal,"(161)[4] which was the moment Aisha realized she had been defeated. Ali, with respect, sent her back to Madina, with her brother Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr. Ali and Aisha were accounted to have become friends after the battle, and with this she backed down from "opposition and effective defiance" (164).[4]

Contributions to Islam and her influence

After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with Muhammad's first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad partook in 10 years of polygyny, possessing nine wives. Muhammad's nine marriages were depicted purely as political unions rather than sexual unions. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsah associated him with two of the most significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's and Hafsah's fathers, Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattāb, correspondingly.[36] Aisha’s marriage has given her significance among many within Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned lady of her time. Being Muhammad’s favorite wife, Aisha occupied an important position in his life.[34] When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible "...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women."[39] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was discovered to be a renowned source of Hadith due to her qualities of intelligence and memory.[34] Aisha delivered ideas expressing the Prophets practice (sunna). Aisha expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.[40]

Muhammad became a significantly powerful figure in 627 C.E. of the rapidly expanding Islamic community. Due to this expansion, segregation of his wives were permitted to enforce their sacrosanct. Veiling, which was seen as the most distinctive emblem, was not specifically enjoined upon Muslim women anywhere within the Quran. During the time of Muhammad's leadership, women were not documented or observed as hijab in Ummah. Other than Muhammad's wives, other women were not required to veil, but others, including the Quran, believed it to be modest to conceal their bodies in clothing.[36]

After the death of Muhammad, Muslim women believed it was Muslim men, not Islam, that suppressed the rights of women. It was for that reason that Muslim feminists are advocating to return Islam to the envisioned society Muhammad had originally had for his followers. It was from Muhammad that the developed idea that Medina was a society in which he designated Muslim women as spiritual guides, prayed and fought alongside Muslim men, and acted not only as religious leaders but political leaders, which was an act Aisha participated in herself, such as the Battle of the Camel. United prayer gathering including Muslim men and women occurred near Muhammad's house as they were blessed as a "single undivided community" (136).[36]

Aisha played a key role in the emergence of Islam, and played an active position in social reform of the Islamic culture.[41] Not only was she supportive of Muhammad, but she added scholarly intelligence to the development of Islam.[39] During a point in Aisha’s life she was given the title Aisha as-Siddiqah, meaning "the one who affirms the truth."[41] Aisha was known for her "...expertise in the Qur'an, shares of inheritance, lawful and unlawful matters, poetry, Arabic literature, Arab history, genealogy, and general medicine.".[39] Her intelligence and contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam.[5] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was ascribed as the most reliable source in the teachings of Hadith.[39] Being Muhammad's favorite wife and a close companion, soon after his death the Islamic community began consulting Aisha on Muhammad's practices, and she was often used to settle disputes on demeanor and infrequent points of law. Aisha's authentication on Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Qur'an allowed for development of the ways in which he prayed and corrected the reading within versus of the Qur'an.[5] Urwah, Aisha’s nephew, explained Aisha’s strengths as knowledgeable in Islamic law. Aisha was also often solicited for advice regarding information on inheritance, requiring much needed knowledge of the Quran. She exemplified the ability to clearly speak aloud for successful and influential presentations and speeches.[41]

During Aisha’s entire life she was a strong advocate for the education of Islamic women especially in areas such as law and the teachings of Islam.[41] Aisha, the mother of the Muslims, was known for establishing the first madrasah for women in her home.[39] Attending Aisha’s classes varied from family relatives to orphaned children.[41] Men also attended Aisha's classes, and a curtain simply separated the male and female students.[39] One of her most mentioned and outstanding students was her nephew, Urwah, who eventually became one of the greatest scholars of his generation. Umrah bint Abdur was also one of Aisha’s famous women pupils who was not only regarded as a trustworthy narrator of the Hadith, but became Aisha’s secretary.[41]

Aisha's scholarly intelligence and motherly figure allowed for important contributions in the emergence of Islam and an important dignitary to the Muslim women.

Political Influence

As mentioned before, Aisha became an influential figure in early Islam after Muhammed's death. However, Aisha also had a strong political influence. Though Muhammad had ordered his wives to stay in the home, Aisha, after Muhammad’s death, took a public and predominant role in politics. Aisha’s political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, into an Islamic leader after Muhammad’s death. Through Aisha’s standing as Muhammad’s favorite wife, her opinion was taken greatly into consideration. In early Islam, after Muhammad’s death, it was uncommon for women to play a governing role in the religious or political decisions. However, it was through Aisha’s recommendation and status as Muhammad’s favorite wife that led to her father’s appointment as the first political leader after the Prophet’s death. Abu Bakr relied heavily on his status as Muhammad's father-in-law, and subsequent close friend.[42]

During the rule of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth successor of Muhammad, Aisha and two other male allies publicly opposed Ali ibn Abi Talib's power.[42] Political control over Islam soon escalated to bloodshed. After the death of Uthman, as mentioned in previous sections, a veiled Aisha delivered a public address at the mosque in Mecca. In the address she swore to avenge Uthman’s death. Her charismatic speech eventually influenced many to join the cause against Ali ibn Abi Talib. Her desire to avenge Uthman's death eventually led to the Battle of the Camel. During the Battle of the Camel, Aisha exhibited her role as a commander by directing her men into battle. Her position as commander positively impacted the organization and direction of the men fighting. Ali ibn Abi Talib soon realized the power Aisha had over the men, and ordered his men to kill her camel. Once the orders had been completed, Aisha was unable to direct her men. Without her command, the men quickly became disorganized, subsequently losing the important battle.[43]

After the defeat at the Battle of Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina as a virtual prisoner.[42] Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. Her discontinuation of public politics, however, did not stop her political influence completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Amongst the Islamic community, she was known as an intelligent woman who debated law with male companions.[44] Aisha was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the pilgrimage to Mecca, a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, hoping to correct false passages, which had become influential in creating the Islamic law. Due to this, Aisha's political influence continues to impact those in Islam.[42]

Death

Aisha died in Medina at the age of 65 in 678 CE (57 AH), 17 Ramadan.[45] She was buried in the Jannat al-Baqi‘. She died of disease at home, and Muhammad's companion Abu Hurayrah led her funeral prayer after the night prayer of tahajjud, and then she was buried in Jannat al-Baqi‘ graveyard in Madina.[46]

Views

Sunni view of Aisha

Sunnis hold Aisha in high esteem, many believe she was Muhammad's favorite wife and the best woman of her time. They consider her (amongst other wives) to be Umm al-Mu'minin and among the members of the Ahl al-Bayt, or Muhammad's family.

Shia view of Aisha

Main article: Shi'a view of Aisha

The Shia view of Aisha is a negative one. This is primarily due to what they see as her contempt for the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family) and her attempts to stir up the fitnah (civil war) of the time.

See also

References

  1. ^ Spellberg, p. 3.
  2. ^ 33:6
  3. ^ History of the Islamic Peoples: With a Review of Events, by Carl Brockelmann, Moshe Perlmann, Joel Carmichael; G. P. Putnams Sons, 1947
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0-405-05318-4
  5. ^ a b c d e f Ahmed, Leila. "Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate." New Haven: Yale University Press,1992,51 Cite error: The named reference "Ahmed" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  6. ^ Abbott, Nabia (1942). Aishah The Beloved of Muhammad. University of Chicago Press. p. 1.
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  8. ^ Esposito, John. L. [<http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e14> "A'ishah In The Islamic World: Past and Present"]. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Retrieved Nov 12, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)
  9. ^ Abbott, Nabia (1942). Aishah The Beloved of Muhammad. University Chicago Press. p. 2.
  10. ^ Ahmed, Lelia (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. Yale University Press.
  11. ^ Abbott, Nabia (1942). The Beloved of Muhammad. University Chicago Press. p. 1.
  12. ^ Abott, Nabia (1942). Aisha The Beloved of Muhammad. University of Chicago Press. p. 3.
  13. ^ a b c Watt, "Aisha", Encyclopedia of Islam Online
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  15. ^ a b Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet, Harper San Francisco, 1992, p. 157.
  16. ^ Barlas (2002), p. 125-126
  17. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:58:234, 5:58:236, 7:62:64, 7:62:65, 7:62:88, Sahih Muslim, 8:3309, 8:3310, 8:3311, 41:4915, Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4917
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  23. ^ Joseph, Suad. "Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Volume 5." Boston: Brill, 2003-2007, 227
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  26. ^ a b c d Abbott, Nabia. "Aishah, the Beloved of Mohammad." London: Saqi Books, 1998, 25 Cite error: The named reference "Abbott" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  27. ^ a b Lings, Martin. "Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources." New York: Inner Traditions International,1983,133-134 Cite error: The named reference "Lings" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  28. ^ Haykal, Muhammad Husayn. "The Life of Muhammad." North American Trust Publications, 1976, 183-184
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  30. ^ Great Women of Islam
  31. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari [1],6:60:434.
  32. ^ Noble Quran
  33. ^ [2]
  34. ^ a b c Elsadda, Hoda "Discourses on Women's Biographies and Cultural Identity: Twentieth-Century Representations of the Life of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr" Feminist Studies , Vol. 27, No. 1 (Spring, 2001), pp. 37-64
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  37. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.47
    • Holt (1977a), p.70-72
    • Tabatabaei (1979), p.50-57
  38. ^ Goodwin, Jan. Price of Honour: Muslim Women Lift the Veil of Silence on the Islamic World. UK: Little, Brown Book Group, 1994[verification needed]
  39. ^ a b c d e f Anwar, Jawed (April 4, 2005). "History Shows the Importance of Women in Muslim Life". Muslims Weekly. Pacific News Service. Retrieved June 19, 2012. Foremost among these women was Hazrat Aisha, the youngest wife of Prophet Muhammad and the most learned lady of her time. The Prophet married Aisha in her youth while she was receptive to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women. Aisha had an outstanding quality of intelligence and memory and, by virtue of these qualities, is considered to be one of the most reliable sources and teacher of Hadith. She had expertise in the Quran, shares of inheritance, lawful and unlawful matters, poetry, Arabic literature, Arab history, genealogy, and general medicine.{{subst:fact}} The first madrasa for women and with a female teacher was established in the home of Aisha. With a curtain separating the men from the women, men also attended Aisha's classes. The Prophet even commanded that the slave girls be educated, and he asked Shifa bint Abdullah to instruct his wife Hafsah bint Umar. Both men and women attended lectures of the Prophet, and by the time of the Prophet's death, there were many women scholars.
  40. ^ Geissinger, Aisha (January 2011). "'A'isha bint Abi Bakr and her Contributions to the Formation of the Islamic Tradition". Religion Compass 5 (1): 37-49. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2010.00260.x
  41. ^ a b c d e f Horg,Jannah "Aisha Bint Abu Bakr" http://www.jannah.org/sisters/aishah.html
  42. ^ a b c d Spellberg, D.A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint ABI Bakr. Columbia University Press. pp. 3. ISBN 0-231-07999-0, ISBN 978-0-231-07999-0.
  43. ^ Ahmed, Leila (1986). "Women and the Advent of Islam". Chicago Journals. 11 (4): 690. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  44. ^ Geissinge, Aisha (01). "'A'isha bint Abi Bakr and her Contributions to the Formation of the Islamic Tradition". Religion Compas. 10 (11): 42. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  45. ^ "‘A’isha was eighteen years of age at the time when the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) died and she remained a widow for forty-eight years till she died at the age of sixty-seven. She saw the rules of four caliphs in her lifetime. She died in Ramadan 58 AH during the caliphate of Mu‘awiya…" (Source: Sunan Nasa'i: English translation with Arabic text, compiled by Imam Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Ahmad Nasa'i, rendered into English by Muhammad Iqbal Siddiqui [Lahore: Kazi Publications; first edition, 1994], Volume 1, p. 108)
  46. ^ al-Bidayah wa-al-Nihayah by Ibn Kathir, book 4, chapter 7, page 97.

Further reading

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