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Hurricane Katrina

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This article is about the Atlantic hurricane of 2005. For other storms of the same name, see Tropical Storm Katrina (disambiguation).
Hurricane Katrina
hurricane
FormedAugust 23, 2005
DissipatedAugust 31, 2005
Hurricane Katrina
2005 Atlantic hurricane season
General
Impact
Relief
Analysis
External links

Hurricane Katrina was the costliest and one of the deadliest hurricanes in the history of the United States. It was the sixth-strongest Atlantic hurricane ever recorded and the third-strongest landfalling U.S. hurricane ever recorded. Katrina occurred late in August during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season, and had catastrophic effects on the city of New Orleans, Louisiana. Its sheer size devastated the Gulf Coast over 100 miles (160 km) away from its center.

Katrina was the eleventh named storm, fifth hurricane, third major hurricane, and second Category 5 hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic season. It formed over the Bahamas on August 23, 2005, and crossed southern Florida as a moderate Category 1 hurricane before strengthening rapidly in the Gulf of Mexico and becoming one of the strongest hurricanes ever recorded in the Gulf. The storm weakened considerably before making its second landfall as a Category 3 storm on the morning of August 29 in southeast Louisiana.

The storm surge caused major or catastrophic damage along the coastlines of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, including the cities of Mobile (Alabama), Biloxi and Gulfport (Mississippi), and Slidell (Louisiana). Levees separating Lake Pontchartrain from New Orleans were breached by the surge, ultimately flooding roughly 80% of the city and many areas of neighboring parishes. Severe wind damage was reported well inland. Katrina is estimated to be responsible for $75 billion (2005 US dollars) in damages, making it the costliest hurricane in U.S. history. The storm killed at least 1,836 people, making it the deadliest U.S. hurricane since the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane.

Storm history

Main article: Meteorological history of Hurricane Katrina
Map plotting the storm's track and intensity, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
Map key
Saffir–Simpson scale
  Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
  Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
  Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
  Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
  Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
  Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
  Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
  Unknown
Storm type
triangle Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

Hurricane Katrina formed as Tropical Depression Twelve over the southeastern Bahamas on August 23, 2005, as the result of an interaction of a tropical wave and the remains of Tropical Depression Ten. The system was upgraded to Tropical Storm Katrina on the morning of August 24, and became a hurricane only two hours before it made landfall on the morning of August 25 between Hallandale Beach and Aventura, Florida. The storm weakened over land, but it regained hurricane status about one hour after entering the Gulf of Mexico.[1]

The storm rapidly intensified after entering the Gulf, due in part to the storm's movement over the warm sea surface temperatures of the Loop Current.[2] On August 27, the storm reached Category 3 intensity on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, becoming the third major hurricane of the season. An eyewall replacement cycle disrupted the intensification, but nearly doubled the size of the storm. Katrina again rapidly intensified, attaining Category 5 status by August 28 and reached its peak at 1:00 p.m. CDT that day with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph (280 km/h) and a minimum central pressure of 902 mbar. The pressure made Katrina the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record, though it would be surpassed by Hurricanes Rita and Wilma later in the season; it was also the strongest hurricane ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico (later also broken by Rita).[1]

Katrina made its second landfall at 6:10 a.m. CDT on August 29 as a Category 3 Hurricane with sustained winds of 125 mph (205 km/h) near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana. At landfall, hurricane-force winds extended outward 120 miles (190 km) from the center and the storm's central pressure was 920 mbar. After moving over southeastern Louisiana and Breton Sound, it made its third landfall near the Louisiana/Mississippi border with 120 mph (195 km/h) sustained winds, still at Category 3 intensity.[1]

Katrina maintained hurricane strength well into Mississippi, but weakened thereafter, finally losing hurricane strength more than 150 mi (240 km) inland, near Jackson, Mississippi. It was downgraded further to a tropical depression near Clarksville, Tennessee. The remnant system was last distinguishable in the eastern Great Lakes region on August 31 when it was absorbed by a frontal boundary. The resulting extratropical storm moved rapidly to the northeast and affected Ontario and Quebec.[1]

Preparations

Main article: Preparations for Hurricane Katrina

Florida

Many living in the area were caught off guard when Katrina strengthened from a tropical storm to a hurricane in one day and struck southern Florida between the Miami-Dade County and Broward County line between the cities of Aventura (Miami-Dade) and Hallandale (Broward) on August 25, 2005. However, National Hurricane Center (NHC) forecasts had correctly predicted that Katrina would intensify to hurricane strength before landfall, and hurricane watches and warnings were issued 31.5 hours and 19.5 hours before landfall, respectively — only slightly less than the target thresholds of 36 and 24 hours.[1]

Florida Governor Jeb Bush declared a state of emergency on August 24 in advance of Katrina's landfall in Florida. Shelters were opened and schools closed in several counties in the south of the state. A number of evacuation orders were also issued, mostly voluntary, although a mandatory evacuation was ordered for at risk housing in Martin County.[3]

Federal government

In the morning of August 27, at 10 a.m. CDT (1500 UTC), after Katrina had strengthened to a Category 3 storm in the Gulf of Mexico, the NHC issued a hurricane watch for southeastern Louisiana, including the New Orleans area. That afternoon the NHC extended the watch to cover the whole of the Mississippi and Alabama coastlines and President George W. Bush declared a state of emergency in Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi two days before the hurricane made landfall.[4] That same evening, the NHC upgraded the hurricane watch to a hurricane warning, 12 hours after it was issued, and also issued a tropical storm warning for the westernmost Florida Panhandle.[1]

On August 28, as it became clear Katrina was a very large storm the NHC extended the tropical-storm warning zone to cover most of the Louisiana coastline and a larger proportion of the Florida Panhandle. The National Weather Service issued a bulletin predicting "devastating" damage from Katrina, which at that time rivaled the intensity of Hurricane Camille. Mandatory evacuations were issued for large areas of southeast Louisiana as well as coastal Mississippi and Alabama.[5] About 1.2 million residents of the Gulf Coast were covered under some sort of evacuation order.[1]

By Sunday, August 28, most infrastructure along the Gulf coast had been shut down, including all Canadian National Railway and Amtrak rail traffic into the evacuation areas as well as the Waterford Nuclear Generating Station.[6] The NHC maintained the coastal warnings until late on August 29, by which time Hurricane Katrina was over central Mississippi.[1]

New Orleans

See also: Hurricane preparedness for New Orleans
Vertical cross-section of New Orleans, showing maximum levee height of 23 feet (7 m).

By August 26, the possibility of unprecedented cataclysm was already being considered. Some computer models were putting the city of New Orleans right in the center of their track probabilities; the chances of a direct hit were forecast at 17%, with strike probability rising to 29% by August 28.[7] This scenario was considered a potential catastrophe because 80% of the New Orleans metropolitan area is below sea level along Lake Pontchartrain. Since the storm surge produced by the hurricane's right-front quadrant (containing the strongest winds) was forecast to be 28 feet (8.5 m), emergency management officials in New Orleans feared that the storm surge could go over the tops of levees protecting the city, causing major flooding.[8] This risk of devastation was well known; previous studies by FEMA and the Army Corps of Engineers had warned that a direct hurricane strike on New Orleans could lead to massive flooding, which would lead to thousands of drowning deaths, as well as many more suffering from disease and dehydration as the flood waters slowly receded from the city.[9]

At a news conference 10:00 a.m. on August 28, shortly after Katrina was upgraded to a Category 5 storm, New Orleans mayor Ray Nagin ordered the first ever mandatory evacuation of the city, calling Katrina, "a storm that most of us have long feared".[10] The government also established several "refuges of last resort" for citizens who could not leave the city, including the massive Louisiana Superdome, which sheltered approximately 26,000 people and provided them with food and water for several days as the storm came ashore.[11]

The Louisiana State Evacuation Plan left the means of evacuation up to individual citizens, parish governments, and private caretakers; however, many private care-taking facilities who relied on the same bus companies and ambulance services for evacuation were unable to evacuate their charges. Fuel and rental cars were in short supply and many forms of public transportation had been shut down well before the storm arrived.[12] Some estimates claimed that 80% of the 1.3 million residents of the greater New Orleans metropolitan area evacuated, leaving behind substantially fewer people than remained in the city during the Hurricane Ivan evacuation.[13]

Impact

Main article: [[:Hurricane Katrina effects by region, Hurricane Katrina death toll by locality]]
Deaths by state
Alabama 2
Florida 14
Georgia 2
Kentucky 1
Louisiana 1,577*
Mississippi 238
Ohio 2
Total 1,836
Add'l missing 1,840
*Includes out-of-state evacuees
counted by Louisiana

On August 29, Katrina's storm surge caused several breaches in levees around New Orleans. Most of the city was subsequently flooded, as the breached drainage and navigation canals allowed water to flow from the lake into low areas of the city and Saint Bernard Parish. Storm surge also devastated the coasts of Mississippi and Alabama, making Katrina the most destructive and costliest natural disaster in the history of the United States, and the deadliest hurricane since the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane. The total damage from Katrina is estimated at $75 billion (2005 US dollars), nearly double the cost of the previously most expensive storm, Hurricane Andrew, when adjusted for inflation.[1]

As of May 19, 2006, the confirmed death toll (total of direct and indirect deaths) stood at 1,836, mainly from Louisiana (1,577) and Mississippi (238).[14][15] However, 705 people remain categorized as missing in Louisiana, so this number is not final even nine months after the storm.[16] Many of the deaths are indirect, but it is almost impossible to determine the exact cause of some of the fatalities.

Federal disaster declarations covered 90,000 square miles (233,000 km²) of the United States, an area almost as large as the United Kingdom. The hurricane left an estimated three million people without electricity. On September 3, 2005, Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff described the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina as, "probably the worst catastrophe, or set of catastrophes," in the country's history, referring to the hurricane itself plus the flooding of New Orleans.[17]

South Florida and Cuba

Damage to a mobile home in Davie, Florida following Hurricane Katrina.

Hurricane Katrina first made landfall on August 25 in South Florida where it hit as a Category 1 hurricane, with 80 mph (130 km/h) winds. Rainfall was heavy in places and exceeded 14 inches (350 mm) in Homestead, Florida.[1] More than 1 million customers were left without electricity, and damage in Florida was estimated at between 1 and 2 billion dollars, with most of the damage coming from flooding and overturned trees. There were 11 fatalities reported in Florida as a result of Hurricane Katrina.

Most of the Florida Keys experienced tropical-storm force winds from Katrina as the storm's center passed to the north, with hurricane force winds reported in the Dry Tortugas. Rainfall was also high in the islands, with 10 inches (250 mm) falling on Key West. On August 26, a strong F1 tornado formed from an outer rainband of Katrina and struck Marathon. The tornado damaged a hangar at the airport there and caused an estimated 5 million dollars of damage.[18]

Although Hurricane Katrina stayed well to the north of Cuba, on August 29 it brought tropical-storm force winds and rainfall of over 8 inches (200 mm) to western regions of the island. Telephone and power lines were damaged and around 8,000 people were evacuated in the Pinar del Río Province. According to Cuban television reports the coastal city of Surgidero de Batabano was 90% underwater. There were no reports of any deaths in Cuba as a result of Hurricane Katrina.[19]

Louisiana

Flooding in Venice, Louisiana.

On August 29 Hurricane Katrina made landfall near Buras, Louisiana with 125 mph (205 km/h) winds, as a strong Category 3 storm. However as it had only just weakened from Category 4 strength and the radius of maximum winds was large, it is possible that sustained winds of Category 4 strength briefly impacted extreme southeastern Louisiana. Although the storm surge to the east of the path of the eye, in Mississippi was higher, a very significant surge affected the Louisiana coast. The height of the surge is uncertain due to a lack of data, although a tide gauge in Plaquemines Parish indicated a storm tide in excess of 14 feet (4.3 meters) and a 12 foot (3 meter) storm surge was recorded in Grand Isle.[1]

Hurricane Katrina also brought heavy rain to Louisiana, with 8-10 inches (200-250 mm) falling on a wide swath of the eastern part of the state. In the area around Slidell, the rainfall was even higher and the highest rainfall recorded in the state was approximately 15 inches (380 mm). As a result of the rainfall and storm surge the level of Lake Pontchartrain rose and caused significant flooding along its northeastern shore, affecting communities from Slidell to Mandeville. Several bridges were destroyed including the I-10 twin span connecting Slidell to New Orleans.[1] Almost 900,000 people in Louisiana lost power as a result of Hurricane Katrina.[20]

In hard-hit St. Bernard Parish, which was flooded in its totality by Katrina, the search for the missing was slow. According to an interview in the Times-Picayune, the coroner was still trying to get a list of missing from the Red Cross in November 2005. While there were some victims on this list whose bodies were found in their homes, the vast majority were tracked down through word-of-mouth and credit card records. As of December 2005, the official missing list in the Parish stood at 47.[21]

New Orleans

Main article: [[:Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans, Levee failures in Greater New Orleans, 2005]]
Flooded I-10 interchange and surrounding area of northwest New Orleans and Metairie, Louisiana

As the eye of Hurricane Katrina swept to the northeast, it subjected the city to hurricane conditions for hours. Although power failures prevented accurate measurement of windspeeds in New Orleans, there were a few measurements of hurricane-force winds. From this the NHC, concluded that it is likely that much of the city experienced sustained winds of Category 1 or Category 2 strength. However as windspeeds increase with height, the winds experienced on upper floors of high rise structures were likely to have been significantly higher.[1]

The heavy winds and storm surges from Katrina severely weakened the city's levee system, and there were reports of extensive failures of the levees and flood walls protecting New Orleans, Louisiana and surrounding communities. The Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MR-GO) breached its levees in approximately 20 places, flooding much of east New Orleans, most of Saint Bernard Parish and the East Bank of Plaquemines Parish. The major levee breaches in the city included breaches at the 17th Street Canal levee, the London Avenue Canal, and the wide, navigable Industrial Canal, which left approximately 80% of the city flooded.[22]

Most of the major roads traveling into and out of the city were damaged. The only route out of the city was the westbound Crescent City Connection, as the I-10 twin span bridge traveling eastbound towards Slidell, Louisiana had collapsed. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway only carried emergency traffic.[23]

On August 29, at 7:40 a.m. CDT, it was reported that most of the windows on the north side of the Hyatt Regency New Orleans had been blown out, and many other high rise buildings had extensive window damage.[24] The Hyatt was the most severely damaged hotel in the city, with beds reported to be flying out of the windows. Insulation tubes were exposed as the hotel's glass exterior was completely sheared off.[25]

File:Navy-KatrinaSurvivorFlyover.jpg
A U.S. Coast Guardsman searches for survivors in New Orleans in the aftermath of Katrina.

The Superdome, which was sheltering a large number of people who had not evacuated, sustained significant damage. Two sections of the Superdome's roof were compromised and the dome's waterproof membrane had essentially been peeled off. Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport was closed before the storm and was flooded. By August 30, it was reopened to humanitarian and rescue operations. Limited commercial passenger service resumed at the airport on September 13.[26]

Katrina also caused widespread loss of life, with over 700 bodies recovered in New Orleans by October 23.[27] Some survivors and evacuees reported seeing dead bodies lying in city streets and floating in still-flooded sections, especially in the east of the city. The advanced state of decomposition of many corpses, some of which were left in the water or sun for days before being collected, hindered efforts by coroners to identify many of the dead.[28]

The first deaths reported from the city were reported shortly before midnight on August 28, as three nursing home patients died during an evacuation to Baton Rouge, most likely due to dehydration. Six more deaths were confirmed at the Superdome, with four of these originating from natural causes, one was the result of a drug overdose, and one was a suicide. At the Convention Center, four bodies were recovered. One out of these four is believed to be the result of a homicide.[29]

Mississippi

Main article: Effect of Hurricane Katrina on Mississippi
Highway 90 Pass Christian: Bay St. Louis bridge destroyed.

The Gulf Coast of Mississippi suffered massive damage from the impact of Hurricane Katrina on August 29, leaving 238 people dead, 67 missing, and billions of dollars in damages. After making a brief initial landfall in Louisiana, Katrina made a second landfall near the state line and passed over the city of Bay St. Louis as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 120 mph (195 km/h). Katrina's powerful right-front quadrant passed over the west and central Mississippi coast causing a powerful 27 foot (8.2 meters) storm surge, which penetrated 6 miles (10 km) inland in many areas and up to 12 miles (20 km) inland along bays and rivers.[1]

Hurricane Katrina brought strong winds to Mississippi which caused significant tree damage throughout the state. The highest reported wind gust recorded from Katrina was one of 135 mph (215 km/h) in Poplarville. The storm also brought heavy rains with 8-10 inches (200-250 mm) falling in southwestern Mississippi and rain in excess of 4 inches (100 mm) falling throughout the majority of the state. Katrina caused eleven tornadoes in Mississippi on August 29 which damaged trees and power lines.[1]

Damage to Long Beach, Mississippi following Hurricane Katrina.

Battered by wind, rain and storm surges, some beachfront neighborhoods were leveled entirely. Preliminary estimates by Mississippi officials calculated that 90% of the structures within half a mile of the coastline were compeletely destroyed.[30] One apartment complex with approximately thirty residents seeking shelter inside collapsed. More than half of the 13 casinos in the state, which were floated on barges to comply with Mississippi land-based gambling laws, were washed hundreds of yards inland by waves.[30] A number of streets and bridges were washed away, including the bridge sections of Interstate 110 and U.S. Highway 90, and the bridge between Bay St. Louis and Pass Christian was also damaged by the storm.[1]

The two counties most severely affected by the storm were Hancock County and Harrison County. Mississippi Emergency Management Agency officials also recorded deaths in Hinds, Warren, and Leake counties. Over 900,000 people through the state experienced power outages, which is almost a third of the population.[20]

Southeast United States

Although Hurricane Katrina made landfall well to the west, Alabama and the Florida Panhandle were both affected by a significant storm surge and tropical-storm force winds. Sustained winds of 67 mph (107 km/h) were recorded in Mobile, Alabama and the storm surge there was approximately 10 feet (3 meters). The surge caused significant flooding several miles inland along Mobile Bay. Four tornadoes were also reported in Alabama.[1]

An oil rig under construction along the Mobile River broke its moorings and floated 1.5 miles (2 km) northwards before striking the Cochrane bridge just outside Mobile. No significant damage resulted to the bridge and it was soon reopened. The damage on Dauphin Island was severe, with the surge destroying many houses and cutting a new canal through the western portion of the island. An offshore oil rig also became grounded on the island. As in Mississippi, the storm surge caused significant beach erosion along the Alabama coastline.[1] More than 600,000 people lost power in Alabama as a result of Hurricane Katrina and two people died in a traffic accident in the state.[20]

Along the Florida Panhandle the storm surge was typically about five feet (1.5 meters) and along the west-central Florida coast there was a minor surge of 1-2 feet (0.3-0.6 meters). In Pensacola, Florida 56 mph (90 km/h) winds were recorded on August 29. The winds caused damage to some trees and structures and there was some minor flooding in the Panhandle. There were two indirect fatalities from Katrina in Walton County as a result of a traffic accident.[1]

Northern and central Georgia were affected by heavy rains and strong winds from Hurricane Katrina as the storm moved inland, with more than 3 inches (75 mm) of rain falling in several areas. At least 18 tornadoes formed in Georgia on August 29, the most on record in that state for one day in August. The most serious of these tornadoes was a F2 tornado which affected Heard County and Carroll County. This tornado caused 3 injuries and one fatality and damaged several houses. In addition this tornado destroyed several poultry barns, killing over 140,000 chicks. The other tornadoes caused significant damages to buildings and agricultural facilities. In addition to the fatality caused by the F2 tornado, there was another fatality in a traffic accident.[31]

Other US States and Canada

Total rainfall from Katrina.

Hurricane Katrina weakened as it moved inland, but tropical-storm force gusts were recorded as far north as Fort Campbell, Kentucky on August 30 and the winds damaged trees in New York. The remnants of the storm brought high levels of rainfall to a wide swath of the eastern United States and rain in excess of 2 inches (50 mm) falling in parts of 20 states.[32] A number of tornadoes associated with Katrina formed on August 30 and August 31, which caused minor damages in several regions.

In Kentucky, a storm that had moved through the weekend before had already produced flooding and the rainfall from Katrina added to this. As a result of the flooding, Kentucky's Governor Ernie Fletcher declared 3 counties disaster areas and a statewide state of emergency.[33][34] One person was killed in Hopkinsville, Kentucky and part of a high school collapsed.[35] Flooding also prompted a number of evacuations in West Virginia and Ohio, the rainfall in Ohio leading to two indirect deaths. Katrina also caused a number of power outages in many areas, with over 100,000 customers affected in Tennessee, primarily in the Memphis and Nashville areas.[36]

The remnants of Katrina merged with a frontal system over Ohio, but the moisture continued north and affected Canada on August 31. In Ontario there were a few isolated reports of rain in excess of 100 mm (4 inches) and there were a few reports of damages due to fallen trees.[37] Flooding also occurred both in Ontario and Quebec, cutting off a number of isolated villages in Quebec.[38]

Aftermath

See also: Social effects of Hurricane Katrina, Political effects of Hurricane Katrina, and Hurricane Katrina disaster relief

Economic effects

Main article: Economic effects of Hurricane Katrina

The economic effects of the storm were far-reaching. As of April, 2006, the Bush Administration has sought $105 billion for repairs and reconstruction in the region.[39] And this does not account for damage to the economy caused by potential interruption of the oil supply and exports of commodities such as grain. The total shut-in oil production from the Gulf of Mexico in the six-month period following the Katrina was approximately 24% of the annual production and the shut-in gas production for the same period was about 18%.[40] The forestry industry in Mississippi was also affected, as 1.3 million acres of forest lands were destroyed.[41] The total loss to the forestry industry due to Katrina is calculated to rise to about $5 billion.[41] Furthermore, hundreds of thousands of local residents were left unemployed, which will have a trickle-down effect as less taxes are paid to local governments. Before the hurricane, the region supported approximately one million non-farm jobs, with 600,000 of them in New Orleans. It is estimated that the total economic impact in Louisiana and Mississippi may exceed $150 billion.[42]

Katrina also redistributed New Orleans' population across the southern United States. Houston, Texas saw an increase of 35,000 people, Mobile, Alabama gained over 24,000, Baton Rouge, Louisiana over 15,000, and Hammond, Louisiana gained over 10,000 nearly doubling its size. As of February 19, 2006, barely 100,000 were once again living in New Orleans, less than a quarter of the pre-storm population.[43] Additionally, insurance companies have stopped insuring the area due to the high costs from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, or have raised insurance premiums to cover their risk.[44]

Environmental effects

The Chandeleur Islands, before Katrina (left) and after (right), showing the impact of the storm along coastal areas.

Katrina also had a profound impact on the environment. The storm surge caused substantial beach erosion, in some cases completely devastating coastal areas. In Dauphin Island, approximately 150 km to the east of the point where the hurricane made landfall, the sand that comprised the barrier island was transported across the island into the Mississippi Sound, pushing the island towards land.[45] The storm surge and waves from Katrina also obliterated the Chandeleur Islands, which had been affected by Hurricane Ivan the previous year.[46]

The lands that were lost were also breeding grounds for marine mammals, turtles, and fish, as well as migratory species such as redhead ducks.[41] Overall, about 20% of the local marshes were permanently overrun by water as a result of the storm.[41]

Katrina also forced the closure of 16 National Wildlife Refuges, of which Breton National Wildlife Refuge received the worst damage, as half of its area was swept off.[47] As a result, the hurricane affected the habitats of sea turtles, Mississippi sandhill cranes, Red-cockaded woodpeckers and Alabama Beach mice.[47]

Finally, as part of the cleanup effort, the flood waters that covered New Orleans were pumped into Lake Pontchantrain. These residual waters contain a mix of raw sewage, bacteria, heavy metals, pesticides, toxic chemicals, and about 6.5 million gallons of oil, which has sparked fears in the scientific community of massive numbers of fish dying.[41]

Looting and violence

Further information: [[:Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans]]
A Border Patrol Special Response Team searches a hotel room-by-room in New Orleans in response to Hurricane Katrina.

Shortly after the hurricane moved away on August 30, some residents of New Orleans who remained in the city began looting stores. Many looters were in search of food and water that was not available to them due to the destruction, though many people stole non-essential items as well.

Reports of carjacking, murders, thefts, and rapes flooded the news, but all but one of the stories were determined to likely be based on rumors.[48] Thousands of National Guard and federal troops were mobilized and sent to Louisiana along with numbers of local law enforcement agents from across the country who were temporarily deputized by the state. "They have M-16s and are locked and loaded. These troops know how to shoot and kill and I expect they will," Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco said. Congressman Bill Jefferson (D-LA) told ABC News. "There was shooting going on. There was sniping going on. Over the first week of September, law and order was gradually restored to the city."[49] Several shootings were between police and New Orleans residents including the fatal incident at Danziger Bridge.[50]

A number of arrests were made throughout the affected area including near the New Orleans Convention Center. A temporary jail was constructed of chain link cages in the city train station.[51]

In Texas, where more than 300,000 evacuees are located, local officials have run 20,000 criminal background checks on the evacuees, as well as on the relief workers helping them and people who have opened up their homes. Most of the checks have found little for police to be concerned about.[52] While the homicide rate in Houston went up by 70% in November, only eight of the cases involved evacuees from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.[53]

Government response

USNS Comfort takes on supplies at Mayport, Florida en route to Gulf Coast.

Some disaster recovery response to Katrina began before the storm, with Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) preparations that ranged from logistical supply deployments to a mortuary team with refrigerated trucks. A network of volunteers began rendering assistance to local residents and residents emerging from New Orleans and surrounding Parishes as soon as the storm made landfall, and has continued for more than six months after the storm.

The United States Northern Command established Joint Task Force (JTF) Katrina based out of Camp Shelby, Mississippi, to act as the military's on-scene command on Sunday, August 28.[54] Approximately 58,000 National Guard personnel were activated to deal with the storm's aftermath, with troops coming from all 50 states.[55] The Department of Defense also activated volunteer members of the Civil Air Patrol and the United States Coast Guard activated more than 400 reservists.[56]

Michael Chertoff, Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security, decided to take over the federal, state, and local operations officially on August 30, 2005, going forward by citing the National Response Plan.[57] Early in September, Congress authorized a total of $62.3 billion in aid for victims.[58] Additionally, President Bush enlisted the help of former presidents Bill Clinton and George H.W. Bush to raise additional voluntary contributions, much as they did after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.[59]

FEMA has provided housing assistance (rental assistance, trailers, etc.) to over 700,000 applicants - families and individuals. However, only one-fifth of the trailers requested in Orleans Parish have been supplied resulting in an enormous housing shortage in the city of New Orleans.[60] To provide for additional housing, FEMA has also paid for the hotel costs of 12,000 individuals and families displaced by Katrina through February 7, 2006, when a final deadline was set for the end of hotel cost coverage. After this deadline, evacuees will still be eligible to receive federal assistance, which can be used towards either apartment rent, additional hotel stays, or fixing their ruined homes, although FEMA will no longer pay for hotels directly.[61]

Two weeks after the storm, over half of the States were involved in providing shelter for evacuees. By four weeks after the storm, evacuees had been registered in all 50 states and in 18,700 zip codes - half of the nation's residential postal zones. Most evacuees had stayed within 250 miles, but 240,000 households went to Houston and other cities over 250 miles away and another 60,000 households went over 750 miles away.[62]

International response

Main article: International response to Hurricane Katrina
United States Navy personnel unload Canadian relief supplies from a Canadian transport aircraft in Pensacola, Florida.

Over seventy countries pledged monetary donations or other assistance. Kuwait made the largest single pledge, $500 million; other large donations were made by Qatar ($100 million), India, China (both $5 million), Pakistan ($1.5 million),[63] and Bangladesh ($1 million).[64]

Countries like Sri Lanka, which was still recovering from the Indian Ocean Tsunami, Cuba and Venezuela (despite their differences with the United States), also offered to help. Countries including Canada, Mexico, Singapore, and Germany sent supplies, relief personnel, troops, ships and water pumps to aid in the disaster recovery. Russia's initial offer of two jets was declined by the U.S. State Department but accepted later. The French offer was also declined and requested later.[65]

Non-government organization response

The American Red Cross, Salvation Army, Common Ground Collective, Emergency Communities, and many other charitable organizations provided housing, food, and water to the victims of the storm. These organizations also provided an infrastructure for shelters throughout Louisiana and other states that held thousands of evacuees.

Volunteers from amateur radio's emergency service wing, the Amateur Radio Emergency Service, provided emergency communications for federal, state and local officials. Over one thousand volunteer operators traveled to affected areas to provide communications in areas where the communications infrastructure had been damaged or totally destroyed, relaying everything from 911 traffic to messages home.[66] In Hancock County, Mississippi, ham radio operators provided the only communications into or out of the area, and even served as 911 dispatchers.[67]

Many corporations also contributed to relief efforts. On September 13, it was reported that corporate donations to the relief effort were $409 million, and were expected to exceed $1 billion.[68]

Analysis of New Orleans levee failures

Main article: Levee failures in Greater New Orleans, 2005

New Orleans' levee failures were found to be primarily the result of system design flaws, combined with the lack of adequate maintenance. Those responsible for the conception, design, construction, and maintenance of the region's flood-control system apparently failed to pay sufficient attention to public safety, according to an investigation by the National Science Foundation.[69]

According to new modeling and field observations by a team from Louisiana State University, the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MRGO), a 200-meter wide canal designed to provide a shortcut from New Orleans to the Gulf of Mexico, helped provide a funnel for the storm surge, making it 20% higher and 100%-200% faster as it crashed into the city. St. Bernard Parish, one of the more devastated areas, lies just south of the MRGO. The Army Corps of Engineers disputes this causality and maintains Katrina would have overwhelmed the levees with or without the contributing effect of the MRGO.[70]

On April 5, 2006, months after independent investigators had demonstrated that levee failures were not due to natural forces beyond intended design strength, Lt. Gen. Carl Strock testified before the United States Senate Subcommittee on Energy and Water that "We have now concluded we had problems with the design of the structure." He also testified that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers did not know of this mechanism of failure prior to August 29, 2005. The claim of ignorance is refuted, however, by the National Science Foundation investigators hired by the Army Corps of Engineers, who point to a 1986 study by the Corps itself that such separations were possible in the I-wall design.[71]

Criticism of government response

Main article: Criticism of government response to Hurricane Katrina
File:Kanyebush.jpg
Rapper Kanye West criticizes President Bush during Hurricane Katrina benefit concert, A Concert for Hurricane Relief.

Criticism of government response to the hurricane primarily consisted of criticism of its response to the approach of the storm and its aftermath, specifically in the delayed response to the flooding of New Orleans.

In accordance with federal law, President George W. Bush directed Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security to coordinate the Federal response. Chertoff designated Michael D. Brown, head of FEMA, as the Principal Federal Official to lead the deployment and coordination of all federal response resources and forces in the Gulf Coast region. However, the President and Secretary Chertoff came under harsh criticism for what some perceived as a lack of planning and coordination. Eight days later, Brown was recalled to Washington and Coast Guard Vice Admiral Thad W. Allen replaced him as chief of hurricane relief operations.[72] Three days after the recall, Michael D. Brown resigned as director of FEMA in spite of having received praise from President George W. Bush. Later, leaked video footage and transcripts of top-level briefings during the week before the storm indicate that federal officials did inform Bush and Chertoff of the danger of levee breaches.[73]

Within days of Katrina's landfall, public debate arose about local, state, and federal governments' role in the preparations for and response to the storm. The criticism was prompted largely by televised images of visibly shaken and frustrated political leaders, and of residents who remained in New Orleans without water, food, or shelter; and the deaths of several citizens of thirst, exhaustion, and violence days after the storm itself had passed. Condemnations of mismanagement and lack of leadership were given, while others alleged that race, class, and other factors could have contributed to delays in government response. The planning and response of President Bush's administration initially faced the harshest criticism, in particular of the Federal Emergency Management Agency and its director, Michael Brown. Subsequently, criticism from politicians, activists, pundits, and journalists of all stripes has also been directed at the local and state governments headed by Mayor Ray Nagin of New Orleans and Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco.

The devastation wrought by Hurricane Katrina has raised other, more general public policy issues about emergency management, environmental policy, poverty, and unemployment. The discussion of both the immediate response and of the broader public policy issues may affect elections and legislation enacted at various levels of government, and caused a Congressional investigation which found that FEMA and the Red Cross "did not have a logistics capacity sophisticated enough to fully support the massive number of Gulf coast victims." and shared responsibility of the disaster between the three levels of government.[43]

A minor scandal erupted when a subsidiary corporation to Service Corporation International, the company involved in illegally disposing of bodies in the Funeralgate scandal, was awarded a no-bid contract by FEMA to count and collect corpses in Louisiana after the hurricane.[74] There was also some concern that some bodies were being improperly disposed of without notification of next of kin.[75]

Media involvement

File:Geraldo-Rivera-Katrina-Aftermath-FNC.jpg
Geraldo Rivera reporting from the New Orleans Convention Center on September 2, 2005.
Main article: Media involvement in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina

Many representatives of the news media reporting on the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina became directly involved in the unfolding events, instead of simply reporting. Due to the loss of most means of communication, such as land-based and cellular telephone systems, field reporters in many cases became conduits for information between victims and authorities. Many journalists also contributed to the spread of false rumors of lawlessness among the victims, which many have interpreted as an instance of yellow journalism.

The authorities, who monitored the network news broadcasts, would then attempt to coordinate rescue efforts based on the reports. This was best illustrated when Geraldo Rivera of Fox News tearfully pleaded for authorities to either send help or evacuate the thousands of evacuees stranded at the Ernest N. Morial Convention Center.[76]

As the U.S. military and rescue services regained control over the city, there were restrictions on the activity of the media. On September 9, the military leader of the relief effort announced that reporters would have "zero access" to efforts to recover bodies in New Orleans. Immediately following this announcement, CNN filed a lawsuit and obtained a temporary restraining order against the ban. The next day the government backed down and reversed the ban.[77]

Retirement

See also: List of retired Atlantic hurricanes

Due to the large loss of life and property along the Gulf Coast, the name Katrina was officially retired on April 6, 2006 by the World Meteorological Organization at the request of the U.S. government. It was replaced by Katia on List III of the Atlantic hurricane naming lists, which will next be used in the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season.[78]

See also

Template:Tcportal

References

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Disaster recovery

Survivor and eyewitness accounts

Images

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