Hongwu Emperor
| Hongwu Emperor | |||||||||||||||||
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| Emperor of the Ming Empire | |||||||||||||||||
| Reign | 23 January 1368[1] – 24 June 1398 | ||||||||||||||||
| Predecessor | Dynasty established | ||||||||||||||||
| Successor | Jianwen Emperor | ||||||||||||||||
| Emperor of China | |||||||||||||||||
| Reign | 14 September 1368 – 24 June 1398 | ||||||||||||||||
| Predecessor | Emperor Huizong of Yuan | ||||||||||||||||
| Successor | Jianwen Emperor | ||||||||||||||||
| Born | 21 October 1328 Fengyang, Anhui, Yuan Empire | ||||||||||||||||
| Died | 24 June 1398 (aged 69) Nanjing, Jiangsu, Ming Empire | ||||||||||||||||
| Burial | 30 June 1398 | ||||||||||||||||
| Spouse | Empress Xiaocigao Noble Consort Chengmu, concubine Consort Li, concubine Consort Ning, concubine Consort Hui, concubine Consort Zhuangjing'anronghui, concubine Consort Jiang, concubine Consort Zhao, concubine Consort Zhaojingchong, concubine Consort An, concubine Consort Ding, concubine Consort Shun, concubine Consort Shun, concubine[2] Consort Xian, concubine Consort Hui, concubine[2] Consort Li, concubine[2] Consort Kung, concubine Consort Han, concubine Consort Yu, concubine Consort Yang, concubine Consort Zhou, concubine Li Jiehao, concubine Beauty Lady Choi, concubine Beauty Lady Zhang, concubine Lady Gao, concubine | ||||||||||||||||
| Issue | Zhu Biao, Crown Prince Yiwen Zhu Shuang, Prince Min of Qin Zhu Gang, Prince Gong of Jin Zhu Di, Yongle Emperor Zhu Su, Prince Ding of Zhou Zhu Zhen, Prince Zhao of Chu Zhu Fu, Prince of Qi Zhu Zi, Prince of Dan Zhu Qi, Prince of Zhao Zhu Tan, Prince Huang of Lu Zhu Chun, Prince Xian of Shu Zhu Bai, Prince Xian of Xiang Zhu Gui, Prince Jian of Dai Zhu Ying, Prince Zhuang of Su Zhu Zhi, Prince Jian of Liao Zhu Zhan, Prince Jing of Qing Zhu Quan, Prince Xian of Ning Zhu Pian, Prince Zhuang of Min Zhu Hui, Prince of Gu Zhu Song Prince Xian of Han Zhu Mo, Prince Jian of Shen Zhu Ying, Prince Hui of An Zhu Jing, Prince Ding of Tang Zhu Dong, Prince Jing of Ying Zhu Yi, Prince Li of Yi Zhu Nan Princess Lin'an Princess Ning Princess Chongning Princess Anqing Princess Runing Princess Huaiqing, Marchioness of Yongchun Princess Daming, Marchioness of Luancheng Princess Fuqing Princess Shouchun a daughter Princess Nankang Princess Zhenyi of Yongjia a daughter Princess Hanshan Princess Ruyang Princess Baoqing | ||||||||||||||||
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| House | House of Zhu | ||||||||||||||||
| Father | Zhu Shizhen | ||||||||||||||||
| Mother | Chen Erniang | ||||||||||||||||
The Hongwu Emperor (Chinese: 洪武帝; pinyin: Hóngwǔ Dì; 21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋) and courtesy name Guorui (國瑞), was the founder and first emperor of the Ming dynasty of China. His temple name was Ming Taizu (明太祖), which literally means "Grand Ancestor of Ming". Hongwu, the era name of his reign, means "vastly martial".
In the middle of the 14th century, with famine, plagues, and peasant revolts sweeping across China, Zhu Yuanzhang rose to command the force that conquered China and ended the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, forcing the Mongols to retreat to the Central Asian steppes. Following his seizure of the Yuan capital, Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing), Zhu claimed the Mandate of Heaven and established the Ming dynasty in 1368. Trusting only in his family, he made his many sons powerful feudal princes along the northern marshes and the Yangtze valley.[6] Having outlived his first successor, the Hongwu Emperor enthroned his grandson via a series of instructions; this ended in failure when the Jianwen Emperor's attempt to unseat his uncles led to him being overthrown by one of them, Zhu Di, who later became the Yongle Emperor.[6]
Most of the historical sites related to the Hongwu Emperor are located in Nanjing, the original capital of the Ming dynasty.
Early life
Zhu was a born into a desperately poor peasant tenant farmer family in Zhongli Village in the Huai River plain, which is in present-day Fengyang, Anhui Province.[7][8] His father was Zhu Shizhen (朱世珍, original name Zhu Wusi 朱五四) and his mother was Chen Erniang. He had seven older siblings, several of whom were "given away" by his parents, as they did not have enough food to support the family.[9] When he was 16, the Huai River broke its banks and flooded the lands where his family lived. Subsequently, a plague killed his entire family, except one of his brothers. He then buried them by wrapping them in white clothes.
Destitute, Zhu accepted a suggestion to take up a pledge made by his late father and became a novice monk at the Huangjue Temple,[10] a local Buddhist monastery. He did not remain there for long as the monastery ran short of funds and he was forced to leave.
For the next few years, Zhu led the life of a wandering beggar and personally experienced and saw the hardships of the common people.[11] After about three years, he returned to the monastery and stayed there until he was around 24 years old. He learned to read and write during the time he spent with the Buddhist monks.[12]
Rise to power
 | This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2013) |
The monastery where Zhu lived was eventually destroyed by an army that was suppressing a local rebellion. In 1352, Zhu joined one of the many insurgent forces that had risen in rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. He rose rapidly through the ranks and became a commander. His rebel force later joined the Red Turbans, a millenarian sect related to the White Lotus Society, and one that followed cultural and religious traditions of Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and other religions. Widely seen as a defender of Confucianism and neo-Confucianism among the predominant Han Chinese population in China, Zhu emerged as a leader of the rebels that were struggling to overthrow the Yuan dynasty.
In 1356, Zhu and his army conquered Nanjing, which became his base of operations and the capital of the Ming dynasty during his reign. Zhu's government in Nanjing became famous for good governance and the city attracted vast numbers of people fleeing from other more lawless regions. It is estimated that Nanjing's population increased by 10 times over the next 10 years.[13] In the meantime, the Yuan government had been weakened by internal factions fighting for control and it made little effort to retake the Yangtze River valley. By 1358, central and southern China had fallen into the hands of different rebel groups. During that time, the Red Turbans also split up. Zhu became the leader of a smaller faction (called "Ming" around 1360) while the larger faction, under Chen Youliang, controlled the center of the Yangtze River valley.
Zhu was able to attract many talents into his service. One of them was Zhu Sheng (朱升), who advised him, "Build high walls, stock up rations, and don't be too quick to call yourself a king." Another, Jiao Yu, was an artillery officer who later compiled a military treatise outlining the various types of gunpowder weapons. Another one, Liu Bowen, became one of Zhu's key advisors, and edited the military-technology treatise titled Huolongjing in later years.
Starting from 1360, Zhu and Chen Youliang fought a protracted war for supremacy over the former territories controlled by the Red Turbans. The pivotal moment in the war was the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363, one of the largest naval battles in history. The battle lasted three days and ended with the defeat and retreat of Chen's larger navy. Chen died a month later in battle. Zhu did not participate personally in any battles after that and remained in Nanjing, where he directed his generals to go on campaigns.
In 1367, Zhu's forces defeated Zhang Shicheng's Kingdom of Dazhou, which was centered in Suzhou and had previously included most of the Yangtze River Delta and Hangzhou, which was formerly the capital of the Song dynasty.[14][15] This victory granted Zhu's government authority over the lands north and south of the Yangtze River. The other major warlords surrendered to Zhu and on 20 January 1368, Zhu proclaimed himself Emperor of the Ming dynasty in Nanjing and adopted "Hongwu" (lit. "vastly martial") as his era name. His dynasty's mission was to drive away the Mongols and restore Han Chinese rule in China.
In 1368, Ming armies headed north to attack territories that were still under Yuan rule. The Mongols gave up their capital, Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing), and the rest of northern China in September 1368 and retreated to Mongolia. On 15 October 1371, one of the Hongwu Emperor's sons, Zhu Shuang, was married to Köke Temür's sister.[16][17][18] The Ming army captured the last Yuan-controlled province of Yunnan in 1381 and China was unified under Ming rule.
Reign
Under the Hongwu Emperor's rule, the Mongol bureaucrats who dominated the government during the Yuan dynasty were replaced by Han Chinese officials. The emperor revamped the traditional Confucian imperial examination system, from which potential state officials were selected, based on merit and their knowledge of literature and philosophy. Candidates for positions in the civil service and the officers corps of the military were required to pass the imperial examination, as required by the Classics. The Confucian scholar-bureaucrats, previously marginalised during the Yuan dynasty, were reinstated to their predominant roles in the government.
Mongol-related things, including garments and names, were discontinued from use and boycotted. There were also attacks on palaces and administrative buildings previously used by the rulers of the Yuan dynasty.[19]
Land reform
As the Hongwu Emperor came from a peasant family, he was aware of how peasants used to suffer under the oppression of the scholar-bureaucrats and the wealthy. Many of the latter, relying on their connections with government officials, encroached unscrupulously on peasants' lands and bribed the officials to transfer the burden of taxation to the poor. To prevent such abuse, the Hongwu Emperor instituted two systems: Yellow Records and Fish Scale Records. These systems served both to secure the government's income from land taxes and to affirm that peasants would not lose their lands.
However, the reforms did not eliminate the threat of the bureaucrats to peasants. Instead, the expansion of the bureaucrats and their growing prestige translated into more wealth and tax exemption for those in the government service. The bureaucrats gained new privileges and some became illegal money-lenders and managers of gambling rings. Using their power, the bureaucrats expanded their estates at the expense of peasants' lands through outright purchase of those lands and foreclosure on their mortgages whenever they wanted the lands. The peasants often became either tenants or workers, or sought employment elsewhere.[20]
Since the beginning of the Ming dynasty in 1357, great care was taken by the Hongwu Emperor to distribute land to peasants. One way was through forced migration to less dense areas.[21] Some of those people were tied to a pagoda tree in Hongdong (洪洞大槐樹) and moved.[22] Public works projects, such as the construction of irrigation systems and dikes, were undertaken in an attempt to help farmers. In addition, the Hongwu Emperor also reduced the demands for forced labour on the peasantry. In 1370, the Hongwu Emperor ordered that some lands in Hunan and Anhui should be given to young farmers who had reached adulthood. The order was intended to prevent landlords from seizing the land, as it also decreed that the titles to the lands were not transferable. During the middle part of his reign, the Hongwu Emperor passed an edict, stating that those who brought fallow land under cultivation could keep it as their property without being taxed. The policy was well received by the people and in 1393, cultivated land rose to 8,804,623 ching and 68 mou, something not achieved during any other Chinese dynasty.[citation needed]
The Hongwu Emperor instigated the planting of 50 million trees in the vicinity of Nanjing, reconstructing canals, irrigation, and transporting southern people to the north for repopulation. He successfully managed to increase the population from 60 to 100 million.[23]
Military
The Hongwu Emperor realised that the Mongols still posed a threat to China, even though they had been driven away after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty. He decided to reassess the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to the scholar bureaucracy. He kept a powerful army, which in 1384 he reorganised using a model known as the weisuo system (simplified Chinese: 卫所制; traditional Chinese: 衛所制; lit. 'guard battalion'). Each military unit consisted of 5,600 men divided into five battalions and ten companies.[24] By 1393 the total number of weisuo troops had reached 1,200,000. Soldiers were also assigned land on which to grow crops whilst their positions were made hereditary. This type of system can be traced back to the fubing system (Chinese: 府兵制) of the Sui and Tang dynasties. While the Ming army was initially very effective, it was later affected by lack of preparation, and was defeated by the Mongols in 1449 during the Tumu Crisis.[citation needed]
Training was conducted within local military districts. In times of war, troops were mobilised from all over the empire on the orders of the Ministry of War, and commanders were appointed to lead them to battle. After the war, the army was disbanded into smaller groups and sent back to their respective districts, and the commanders had to return their authority to the state. This system helped to prevent military leaders from having too much power. The military was under the control of a civilian official for large campaigns, instead of a military general.[citation needed]
Consolidating control
The Hongwu Emperor expected everyone to obey his rule[25][26] and was infamous for killing many people during his purges.[27] His tortures included flaying and slow slicing.[28][29][30] One of his generals, Chang Yuchun, carried out massacres in some places[citation needed] in Shandong and Hunan provinces to take revenge against people who resisted his army.[31][32][33] As time went on, the Hongwu Emperor became increasingly fearful of rebellions and coups, even going so far as to order the execution of those of his advisers who dared criticise him.[34] He was also said to have ordered the massacre of several thousand people living in Nanjing after having heard one talked about him without respect.[35][36][37] In 1380, after much killing, a lightning bolt struck his palace and he stopped the massacres for some time as he was afraid divine forces would punish him.[38]
The Hongwu Emperor also noted the destructive role of court eunuchs under the previous dynasties. He drastically reduced their numbers, forbidding them to handle documents, insisting that they remain illiterate, and executing those who commented on state affairs. The emperor had a strong aversion to the eunuchs, epitomized by a tablet in his palace stipulating: "Eunuchs must have nothing to do with the administration". This aversion to eunuchs did not long continue among his successors, as the Hongwu and Jianwen emperors' harsh treatment of eunuchs allowed the Yongle Emperor to employ them as a power base during his coup.[6] In addition to the Hongwu Emperor's aversion to eunuchs, he never consented to any of his marital relatives becoming court officials. This policy was fairly well-maintained by later emperors, and no serious trouble was caused by the empresses or their relatives.
The Hongwu Emperor attempted, and largely succeeded in, the consolidation of control over all aspects of government, so that no other group could gain enough power to overthrow him. He also buttressed the country's defences against the Mongols. He increasingly concentrated power in his own hands. He abolished the Chancellor's post, which had been head of the main central administrative body under past dynasties, by suppressing a plot for which he had blamed his chief minister. Many argue that the Hongwu Emperor, because of his wish to concentrate absolute authority in his own hands, removed the only insurance against incompetent emperors.[citation needed]
However, the Hongwu Emperor could not govern the sprawling Ming Empire all by himself and had to create the new institution of the "Grand Secretary". This cabinet-like organisation progressively took on the powers of the abolished prime minister, becoming just as powerful in time. Ray Huang argued that Grand-Secretaries, outwardly powerless, could exercise considerable positive influence from behind the throne.[citation needed] Because of their prestige and the public trust which they enjoyed, they could act as intermediaries between the emperor and the ministerial officials, and thus provide a stabilising force in the court. He executed tens of thousand officials and their relatives over sedition, treason, corruption and other charges.[39][40][41][42][43][44][45]
In the Hongwu Emperor's elimination of the traditional offices of grand councilor, the primary impetus was Hu Weiyong's alleged attempt to usurp the throne. Hu was the Senior Grand Councilor and a capable administrator; however over the years, the magnitude of his powers as well as involvement in several political scandals eroded the paranoid emperor's trust in him. Finally, in 1380, the Hongwu Emperor had Hu and his entire family arrested and executed on charges of treason. Using this as an opportunity to purge his government, the emperor also ordered the execution of countless other officials, as well as their families, for associating with Hu. The purge lasted over a decade and resulted in more than 30,000 executions. In 1390, even Li Shanchang, one of the closest old friends of the emperor who was rewarded as the biggest contributor to the founding of the Ming Empire, was executed along with over 70 members of his extended family. A year after his death, a deputy in the Board of Works made a submission to the emperor appealing Li's innocence, arguing that since Li was already at the apex of honour, wealth and power, the accusation that he wanted to help someone else usurp the throne was clearly ridiculous. The Hongwu Emperor was unable to refute the accusations and finally ended the purge shortly afterwards.
Through the repeated purges and the elimination of the historical posts, the Hongwu Emperor fundamentally altered the centuries-old government structure of China, greatly increasing the emperor's absolutism.
The Hongwu Emperor was extremely authoritarian, a virtual dictator, and governed directly over all affairs. He wrote essays posted in every village throughout China warning the people to behave and of the horrifying consequences if they disobeyed.[23] The 1380s writings of Hongwu are known as the "Great warnings" or "Grand Pronouncements".[46]
Legal code
The legal code drawn up in the time of the Hongwu Emperor was considered one of the great achievements of the era. The History of Ming mentioned that as early as 1364, the monarchy had started to draft a code of laws. This code was known as Code of the Great Ming or Laws of the Great Ming (大明律). The emperor devoted much time to the project and instructed his ministers that the code should be comprehensive and intelligible, so as not to allow any official to exploit loopholes in the code by deliberately misinterpreting it. The Ming code laid much emphasis on family relations. The code was a great improvement on the code of the Tang dynasty in regards to the treatment of slaves. Under the Tang code, slaves were treated as a species of domestic animal; if they were killed by a free citizen, the law imposed no sanction on the killer. Under the Ming dynasty, the law protected both slaves and free citizens.[citation needed]
Philosophical and religious edicts
Confucianism
Supported by the scholar-bureaucrats, the Hongwu Emperor accepted the Confucian viewpoint that merchants were solely parasitic. He felt that agriculture should be the country's source of wealth and that trade was ignoble. As a result, the Ming economic system emphasised agriculture, unlike the economic system of the Song dynasty, which had preceded the Yuan dynasty and had relied on traders and merchant for revenues. The Hongwu Emperor also supported the creation of self-supporting agricultural communities.
However, his prejudice against merchants did not diminish the numbers of traders. On the contrary, commerce increased significantly during the Hongwu era due to the growth of industry throughout the empire. This growth in trade was due in part to poor soil conditions and the overpopulation of certain areas, which forced many people to leave their homes and seek their fortunes in trade. A book titled Tu Pien Hsin Shu,[citation needed] written during the Ming dynasty, gave a detailed description about the activities of merchants at that time.
Islam
The Hongwu Emperor ordered the construction of several mosques in Nanjing, Yunnan, Guangdong and Fujian provinces,[47] and had inscriptions praising the Prophet Muhammad placed in mosques. He rebuilt the Jinjue Mosque (literally meaning: Pure Enlightenment Mosque) in Nanjing and large numbers of Hui people moved to the city during his rule.[48]
Chinese sources claim that the Hongwu Emperor had close relations with Muslims, and had around ten Muslim generals in his military,[49] including Lan Yu, Ding Dexing, Mu Ying, Feng Sheng and Hu Dahai, and that that "His Majesty ordered to have mosques built in Xijing and Nanjing [the capitals], and in southern Yunnan, Fujian and Guangdong." He also personally wrote a 100 word praise (baizizan) on Islam, Allah and the Prophet Muhammad.[50]
Huihui Lifa
Around 1384, the Hongwu Emperor ordered the Chinese translation and compilation of Islamic astronomical tables, a task that was carried out by the scholars Mashayihei, a Muslim astronomer, and Wu Bozong, a Chinese scholar-official. These tables came to be known as the Huihui Lifa (Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy), which was published in China a number of times until the early 18th century,[51]
Foreign policy
Vietnam
The Hongwu Emperor was a non interventionist, refusing to intervene in a Vietnamese invasion of Champa to help the Chams, only rebuking the Vietnamese for their invasion, being opposed to military action abroad.[52] He specifically warned future Emperors only to defend against foreign barbarians, and not engage in military campaigns for glory and conquest.[53] In his 1395 ancestral injunctions, the emperor specifically wrote that China should not attack the following countries - Champa, Cambodia, and Annam (Vietnam).[54] He was advised to concentrate on defending against the Rong and Di "Barbarians", rather than attacking.[55]
Japanese pirates
However, the Hongwu Emperor had harsh words for those who tried to threaten China. He sent a message to the Japanese that his army would "capture and exterminate your bandits, head straight for your country, and put your king in bonds", due to consistent raiding by Japanese pirates.[56]
Development of the dynasty
Although the Hongwu era saw the introduction of paper currency, its development was stifled from the beginning. Not understanding inflation, the Hongwu Emperor gave out so much paper money as rewards that by 1425, the state was forced to reintroduce copper coins because the paper currency had sunk to only 1/70 of its original value.
During the Hongwu era, the Ming Empire was characterised by rapid and dramatic population growth, largely due to the increased food supply from the emperor's agricultural reforms.[57] By the end of the Ming dynasty, the population had risen by as much as 50%. This was stimulated by major improvements in agricultural technology, promoted by the pro-agrarian state which came to power in the midst of a pro-Confucian peasant's rebellion. During his reign, living standards also greatly improved.[citation needed]
Death
The Hongwu Emperor died on June 24, 1398 after reigning for 30 years at the age of 69. After his death, his physicians were penalised. He was buried at Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum on the Purple Mountain, east of Nanjing.
Assessment
Historians consider the Hongwu Emperor to have been one of the most significant emperors of China. As historian Ebrey puts it, "Seldom has the course of Chinese history been influenced by a single personality as much as it was by the founder of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang."[58] His rise to power was fast despite his having a poor and humble origin. In 11 years, he went from being a penniless monk to the most powerful warlord in China. Five years later, he became emperor of China. Simon Leys described him this way:
'an adventurer from peasant stock, poorly educated, a man of action, a bold and shrewd tactician, a visionary mind, in many respects a creative genius; naturally coarse, cynical, and ruthless, he eventually showed symptoms of paranoia, bordering on psychopathy.'[59]
The folk song Fengyang Flower Drum (鳳陽花鼓) condemned him.[citation needed]
Family
Parents and ancestors
- Great-great-great-grandfather: Zhu Zhongba (朱仲八)
- Great-great-grandfather: Zhu Bailiu (朱百六), posthumously honored as Emperor Xuan (玄皇帝) with the temple name Dezu (德祖).
- Great-great-grandmother: Lady Hu (胡氏), posthumously honored as Empress Xuan (玄皇后).
- Great-grandfather: Zhu Sijiu (朱四九), posthumously honored as Emperor Heng (恆皇帝) with the temple name Yizu (懿祖).
- Great-grandmother: Lady Hou (侯氏), posthumously honored as Empress Heng (恆皇后).
- Grandfather: Zhu Chuyi (朱初一), posthumously honored as Emperor Yu (裕皇帝) with the temple name Xizu (熙祖).
- Grandmother: Lady Wang (王氏), posthumously honored as Empress Yu (裕皇后).
- Father: Zhu Shizhen (朱世珍, original name Zhu Wusi 朱五四) (1283–1344), posthumously honored as Emperor Chun (淳皇帝) with the temple name Renzu (仁祖).
- Mother: Chen Erniang, posthumously honored as Empress Chun (淳皇后).
Zhu's parents, grandparents, great-grandparents and great-great-grandparents were given posthumous imperial titles.
The great-great-grandfather of the Emperor was given the posthumous name of Emperor Xuan and the temple name Dezu, and the great-great-grandmother was given the title of Empress Xuan. The great-grandfather was given the posthumous name of Emperor Heng and the temple name Yizu, and the great-grandmother was given the title of Empress Heng. The grandfather of the Emperor was given the posthumous name of Emperor Yu and the temple name Xizu, and the grandmother was given the title of Empress Yu. The father of the Emperor was given the posthumous name of Emperor Chun and the temple name Renzu, and the mother of the Emperor, whose maiden name was Chen, was given the title of Empress Chun.[60]
Consorts
| Formal Title | Maiden Name | Birth | Death | Father | Mother | Issue | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Empress Xiaocigao 孝慈高皇后 |
Family name: Ma (馬) |
1332 Suzhou, Anhui |
1382 | Ma Gong 馬公 |
Lady Zheng 鄭媼 |
Zhu Biao, Crown Prince Yiwen Zhu Shuang, Prince Min of Qin Zhu Gang, Prince Gong of Jin Zhu Di, Yongle Emperor Zhu Su, Prince Ding of Zhou Princess Ning Princess Anqing |
There are claims that she was childless and these children were adopted |
| Noble Consort Chengmu 成穆貴妃 |
Family name: Sun (孫) |
1343 Chenzhou |
1374 | – | – | Princess Huaiqing | |
| Consort Li 李淑妃 |
Li (李) | Shouzhou | – | Li Jie 李傑 |
– | – | |
| Consort Ning 寧妃 |
Guo (郭) | Haozhou | – | Guo Shanfu 郭山甫 |
– | ||
| Consort Hui 惠妃 |
Guo (郭) | – | – | Guo Zixing 郭子興 |
– | Zhu Tan, Prince Huang of Lu Zhu Chun, Prince Xian of Shu Zhu Gui, Prince Jian of Dai Zhu Hui, Prince of Gu Princess Zhenyi of Yongjia Princess Ruyang |
|
| Consort Zhuangjing'anronghui 莊靖安榮惠妃 |
Cui (崔) | – | – | – | – | ||
| Consort Jiang 江貴妃 |
Jiang (江) |
– | – | – | – | – | |
| Consort Zhao 趙貴妃 |
Zhao (趙) |
– | – | – | – | Zhu Mo, Prince Jian of Shen | |
| Consort Zhaojingchong 昭敬充妃 |
Hu (胡) | – | – | – | – | – | |
| Consort An 安妃 |
Zheng (鄭) | – | – | – | – | Princess Fuqing | |
| Consort Ding 定妃 |
Da (達) | – | – | – | – | Zhu Fu, Prince of Qi Zhu Zi, Prince of Dan |
|
| Consort Shun 順妃 |
Hu (胡) | – | – | – | – | Zhu Bai, Prince Xian of Xiang | |
| Consort Shun 順妃 |
Im (任) | Goryeo | – | – | – | – | Korean |
| Consort Xian 賢妃 |
Li (李) | – | – | – | – | Zhu Jing, Prince Ding of Tang | |
| Consort Hui 惠妃 |
Liu (劉) | – | – | – | – | Zhu Dong, Prince Jing of Ying | |
| Consort Li 麗妃 |
Ge (葛) | - | - | - | - | - | |
| Consort Gong 碽妃 |
Gong (碽) | Goryeo | - | - | - | - | Korean; was given to the Hongwu Emperor as tribute from Goryeo; speculated by some to be the biological mother of the Yongle Emperor |
| Consort Han 韓妃 |
Han (韓) | Goryeo | - | - | - | Zhu Zhi, Prince Jian of Liao Princess Hanshan |
Korean |
| Consort Yu 余妃 |
Yu (余) | - | - | - | - | - | |
| Consort Yang 楊妃 |
Yang (楊) | - | - | - | - | Zhu Quan, Prince Xian of Ning | |
| Consort Zhou 周妃 |
Zhou (周) | - | - | - | - | Zhu Pian, Prince Zhuang of Min Zhu Song, Prince Xian of Han |
|
| Li Jieyu 李婕妤 |
Lee (李) | Goryeo | - | - | - | - | Korean |
| Beauty Lady Cui 崔美人 |
Choi (崔) | Goryeo | - | - | - | - | Korean |
| Beauty Lady Zhang 張美人 |
Zhang (張) | - | - | - | - | Princess Baoqing | |
| Lady Gao 郜氏 |
Gao (郜) | - | - | - | - | Zhu Ying, Prince Zhuang of Su | Was not given a formal consort name |
The Hongwu Emperor treated his ladies-in-waiting badly, forcing them to live in the palaces for life without freedom and behind cemented walls.[61][62][unreliable source?] He massacred thousands of them.[63][64][65][unreliable source?] He restricted the freedom of many concubines and killed several[who?].[66][67][68][unreliable source?] He also forced many of them [who?] to commit suicide and ordered that they will be buried with him after his death.[69][unreliable source?] He had several Korean concubines, including Lady Han, who bore him a son, and Lady Gong.[70]
Sons
| Number | Name | Formal Title | Born | Died | Mother | Spouse | Issue | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Zhu Biao 朱標 |
Crown Prince Yiwen 懿文太子 |
10 October 1355 | 17 May 1392 | Empress Xiaocigao | Lady Chang Lady Lü |
Zhu Xiongying, Prince Huai of Yu Zhu Yunwen, Jianwen Emperor Zhu Yuntong, Prince of Wu Zhu Yunjian, Prince of Heng Zhu Yunhuo, Prince Jian of Xu Princess Jiangdou Princess Yilun unnamed daughter Princess Nanping |
|
| 2 | Zhu Shuang 朱樉 |
Prince Min of Qin 秦愍王 |
3 December 1356 | 9 April 1395 | Empress Xiaocigao | Lady Wang Lady Deng |
Zhu Shangbing, Prince Huai of Qin Zhu Shanglie, Prince Yijian of Yongxing Zhu Shangyu, Prince Daoxi of Bao'an Zhu Shangzhou, Prince Gongjing of Xingping Zhu Shanghong, Prince Huaijian of Yongshou Zhu Shangkai, Prince of Anding Princess Pucheng Princess Chang'an |
|
| 3 | Zhu Gang 朱棡 |
Prince Gong of Jin 晉恭王 |
18 December 1358 | 22 April 1398 | Empress Xiaocigao | Lady Xie | Zhu Jixi, Prince Ding of Jin Zhu Jiye, Prince of Gaoping Zhu Jihuang, Prince of Jin Zhu Jixuan, Prince of Qingcheng Zhu Jihuan, Prince of Ninghua Zhu Jilang, Prince of Yonghe Zhu Jihe, Prince of Guangchang two unnamed daughters Princess Rongcheng |
|
| 4 | Zhu Di 朱棣 |
Prince of Yan 燕王 Later the Yongle Emperor |
2 May 1360 | 12 August 1424 | Empress Xiaocigao [disputed] |
Xu Yihua, Empress Renxiaowen 20 concubines |
Zhu Gaochi, Hongzhi Emperor Zhu Gaoxu, Prince of Han Zhu Gaosui, Prince Jian of Zhao Zhu Gaoxi Princess Yong'an Princess Yongping Princess Ancheng Princess Xianning Princess Changning |
|
| 5 | Zhu Su 朱橚 |
Prince Ding of Zhou 周定王 |
8 October 1361 | 2 September 1425 | Empress Xiaocigao | – | 26 children | |
| 6 | Zhu Zhen 朱楨 |
Prince Zhao of Chu 楚昭王 |
5 April 1364 | 22 March 1424 | Consort Chong | – | 10 sons | |
| 7 | Zhu Fu 朱榑 |
Prince of Qi 齊王 |
1364 | 1428 | Consort Ding | – | Zhu Xianting Zhu Xianhuo, Prince Daoyin of Le'an Zhu Xian𤊥, Prince of Changshan Zhu Xian'an, Prince of Pingyuan Zhu Xianhe |
|
| 8 | Zhu Zi 朱梓 |
Prince of Dan 潭王 |
– | 1390 | Consort Ding | Lady Yu (daughter of Yu Xian (于顯)) |
none | |
| 9 | Zhu Qi 朱杞 |
Prince of Zhao 趙王 |
October 1369 | 16 January 1371 | unknown | none | none | |
| 10 | Zhu Tan 朱檀 |
Prince Huang of Lu 魯荒王 |
15 March 1370 | 1389 | Consort Hui | Lady Tang (daughter of Tang He (湯和)) |
Zhu Zhaohui, Prince Jing of Lu | |
| 11 | Zhu Chun 朱椿 |
Prince Xian of Shu 蜀獻王 |
1371 | 1423 | Consort Hui | Lady Lan (daughter of Lan Yu) |
11 children | |
| 12 | Zhu Bai 朱柏 |
Prince Xian of Xiang 湘獻王 |
1371 | 1399 | Consort Shun | Lady Wu (niece of Wu Gao (吳高)) |
no sons | |
| 13 | Zhu Gui 朱桂 |
Prince Jian of Dai 代簡王 |
25 August 1374 | 29 December 1446 | Consort Hui | Lady Xu | ||
| 14 | Zhu Ying 朱楧 |
Prince Zhuang of Su 肅莊王 |
1376 | 1419 | Lady Gao | – | Zhu Shanyan, Prince Kang of Su | |
| 15 | Zhu Zhi 朱植 |
Prince Jian of Liao 遼簡王 |
– | 1424 | Consort Han | – | 20 sons | |
| 16 | Zhu Zhan 朱㮵 |
Prince Jing of Qing 慶靖王 |
6 February 1378 | 23 August 1438 | Consort Yu | Lady Sun (daughter of Sun Da (孫達)) |
six sons | |
| 17 | Zhu Quan 朱權 |
Prince Xian of Ning 寧獻王 |
1378 | 1448 | Consort Yang | – | 16 children | |
| 18 | Zhu Pian 朱楩 |
Prince Zhuang of Min 岷莊王 |
10 April 1379 | 10 May 1450 | Consort Zhou | – | Zhu Huiyi Zhu Huirou, Prince Gong of Min Zhu Huimei, Prince Gonghui of Jiangchuan Zhu Huiye, Prince of Guangtong Zhu Huixi, Prince of Yangzong |
|
| 19 | Zhu Hui 朱橞 |
Prince of Gu 谷王 |
30 April 1379 | 1428 | Consort Hui | Lady Zhou (daughter of Zhou Duo (週鐸)) |
Zhu Fuzhuo Zhu Fuyue Zhu Fuxin |
|
| 20 | Zhu Song 朱松 |
Prince Xian of Han 韓憲王 |
26 June 1380 | 19 November 1407 | Consort Zhou | Lady Feng | 4 sons | |
| 21 | Zhu Mo 朱模 |
Prince Jian of Shen 瀋簡王 |
1 September 1380 | 1431 | Consort Zhao | Lady Guo (daughter of Guo Ying (郭英)) Lady Zhang |
7 sons | |
| 22 | Zhu Ying 朱楹 |
Prince Hui of An 安惠王 |
18 October 1383 | 9 October 1417 | – | Lady Xu (youngest daughter of Xu Da) |
no sons | |
| 23 | Zhu Jing 朱桱 |
Prince Ding of Tang 唐定王 |
11 October 1386 | 8 September 1415 | Consort Xian | – | Zhu Qiongjing, Prince Jing of Tang Zhu Qiongda, Prince Xian of Tang Zhu Qiongwei, Prince Daohuai of Xinye |
|
| 24 | Zhu Dong 朱棟 |
Prince Jing of Ying 郢靖王 |
21 June 1388 | 14 November 1414 | Consort Hui | Lady Guo (daughter of Guo Ying, Marquess of Wuding) |
4daughters | |
| 25 | Zhu Yi 朱㰘 |
Prince Li of Yi 伊厲王 |
9 July 1388 | 8 October 1414 | Consort Li | Lady Liu | Zhu Yonggui, Prince Jian of Yi[71] | |
| 26 | Zhu Nan 朱楠 |
none | 4 January 1394 | 1394 | – | none | none | Died about one month after his birth. |
Daughters
| Number | Title | Born | Died | Date Married | Spouse | Issue | Mother | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Princess Lin'an 臨安公主 |
1360 | 17 August 1421 | 1376 | Li Qi 李祺 (son of Li Shanchang, Duke of Han) |
– | – | |
| 2 | Princess Ning 寧國公主 |
1364 | 7 September 1434 | 1378 | Mei Yin 梅殷 (second son of Mei Sizu, Marquess of Runan) |
– | Empress Xiao Ci Gao | |
| 3 | Princess Chongning 崇寧公主 |
– | – | 21 December 1384 | Niu Cheng 牛城 |
– | – | |
| 4 | Princess Anqing 安慶公主 |
– | – | 23 December 1381 | Ouyang Lun 歐陽倫 |
– | Empress Xiaocigao | |
| 5 | Princess Running 汝寧公主 |
– | – | 11 June 1382 | Lu Xian 陸賢 (son of Lu Zhongheng, Marquess of Ji'an) |
– | – | |
| 6 | Princess Huaiqing 懷慶公主 |
– | 15 July 1425 | 11 September 1382 | Wang Ning, Marquess of Yongchun 永春侯 |
Wang Zhenliang 王貞亮 Wang Zhenqing 王貞慶 |
Noble Consort Cheng Mu | |
| 7 | Princess Daming 大名公主 |
1368 | 30 March 1426 | 2 September 1382 | Li Jian, Marquess of Luancheng 灤城侯李堅 (son of Li Ying (李英)) |
Li Zhuang 李莊 |
– | |
| 8 | Princess Fuqing 福清公主 |
– | 28 February 1417 | 26 April 1385 | Zhang Lin 張麟 (son of Zhang Long, Marquess of Fengxiang) |
– | Consort An | |
| 9 | Princess Shouchun 壽春公主 |
1370 | 1 August 1388 | 9 April 1386 | Fu Zhong 傅忠 (son of Fu Youde, Duke of Ying) |
– | – | |
| 10 | none | – | – | none | none | none | – | Died young |
| 11 | Princess Nankang 南康公主 |
1373 | 15 November 1438 | 1387 | Hu Guan 胡觀 (third son of Hu Hai, Marquess of Dongchuan) |
– | – | |
| 12 | Princess Zhenyi of Yongjia 永嘉貞懿公主 |
1376 | 12 October 1455 | 23 November 1389 | Guo Zhen 郭鎮 (son of Guo Ying, Marquess of Wuding) |
Guo Zhensi 郭珍嗣 |
Consort Hui | |
| 13 | none | – | – | none | none | none | – | Died young |
| 14 | Princess Hanshan 含山公主 |
1381 | 18 October 1462 | 11 September 1394 | Yin Qing 尹清 |
– | Consort Han | |
| 15 | Princess Ruyang 汝陽公主 |
– | – | 23 August 1394 | Xie Da 謝達 |
– | Consort Hui | |
| 16 | Princess Baoqing 寶慶公主 |
1394 | 1433 | 1413 | Zhao Hui 趙輝 |
– | Beauty Lady Zhang |
In popular culture
- Novels
- The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber (倚天屠龍記), a 1961–63 wuxia novel by Louis Cha. Zhu Yuanzhang appears as a minor character in the novel. Zhu Yuanzhang has been portrayed by various actors in the films and television series adapted from this novel.
- Television series
- Born to be a King (大明群英), a 1987 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB and starring Simon Yam as Zhu Yuanzhang.
- Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋), a 1993 Chinese television series produced by Beijing TV and starring Lü Qi as Zhu Yuanzhang.
- Empress Ma With Great Feet (大腳馬皇后), a 2002 Chinese television series about Zhu Yuanzhang's wife, Empress Ma. Tang Guoqiang starred as Zhu Yuanzhang.
- Chuanqi Huangdi Zhu Yuanzhang (傳奇皇帝朱元璋), a 2006 Chinese television series starring Chen Baoguo as Zhu Yuanzhang.
- Founding Emperor of Ming Dynasty (朱元璋), a 2006 Chinese television series directed by Feng Xiaoning and starring Hu Jun as Zhu Yuanzhang.
- The Legendary Liu Bowen (神機妙算劉伯溫), a 2006–2008 Taiwanese television series about Zhu Yuanzhang's adviser, Liu Bowen. It was produced by TTV and starred Huo Zhengqi as Zhu Yuanzhang.
- Zhenming Tianzi (真命天子), a 2015 Chinese television series produced by Jian Yuanxin and starring Zhang Zhuowen as Zhu Yuanzhang.
See also
- Huang Ming Zu Xun, the "Ancestral Instructions" written by the Hongwu Emperor to guide his descendants
- Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum
- Rags to riches
- Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming dynasty
Notes
This article incorporates text from China and the Roman Orient: researches into their ancient and mediæval relations as represented in old Chinese records, by Friedrich Hirth, a publication from 1885, now in the public domain in the United States.- This article incorporates text from Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China, by COLONEL SIR HENRY YULE, a publication from 1913, now in the public domain in the United States.
- This article incorporates text from Institutes of ecclesiastical history: ancient and modern ..., by Johann Lorenz Mosheim, James Murdock, a publication from 1832, now in the public domain in the United States.
- ^ The Hongwu Emperor was already in control of Nanjing since 1356 and was conferred the title of "Duke of Wu" (吳國公) by the rebel leader Han Lin'er (韓林兒) in 1361. He started autonomous rule as the self-proclaimed "Prince of Wu" (吳王) on 4 February 1364. He was proclaimed emperor on 23 January 1368 and established the Ming dynasty on that same day.
- ^ a b c Different from the above
- ^ Name given by his parents at birth and used only inside the family and friends. This birth name, which means "double eight", was allegedly given to him because the combined age of his parents when he was born was 88 years.
- ^ He was known as "Zhu Xingzong" when he reached adulthood and renamed himself "Zhu Yuanzhang" in 1352 when he started to become famous among the rebel leaders.
- ^ Upon his successful usurpation in 1402, the Yongle Emperor voided the Jianwen era of his predecessor and continued the Hongwu era posthumously until the next New Year when his own new era was declared. This dating continued for a few of his successors until the Jianwen era was reëstablished in the late 16th century.
- ^ a b c Chan Hok-lam. "Legitimating Usurpation: Historical Revisions under the Ming Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424)". The Legitimation of New Orders: Case Studies in World History. Chinese University Press, 2007. ISBN 962996239X, 9789629962395. Accessed 12 Oct 2012.
- ^ Mote, Frederick W. (1988). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7 The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 11.
- ^ Dreyer, 22–23.
- ^ History of Ming, vol. 1
- ^ Mote, J.F. Imperial China 900–1800 Harvard University Press (5 December 2003) ISBN 978-0-674-01212-7 pp.543–545 Google Books Search
- ^ {Yonglin, Jiang (tr). The Great Ming Code: Da Ming lü. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2005, pp xxxiv}
- ^ {Mote, Frederick W. and Twitchett, Denis (ed), The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp 45.}
- ^ Ebrey, "Cambridge Illustrated History of China", pg. 191
- ^ Edward L. Farmer, Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule. BRILL, 1995. ISBN 90-04-10391-0, ISBN 978-90-04-10391-7. On Google Books. P 23.
- ^ Linda Cooke Johnson, Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China. SUNY Press, 1993. ISBN 0-7914-1423-X, 9780791414231 On Google Books, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K., eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644. Contributors Denis Twitchett, John K. Fairbank (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 128. ISBN 0521243327. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ Papers on Far Eastern History, Volumes 37-38. Contributor Australian National University. Dept. of Far Eastern History. Department of Far Eastern History, Australian National University. 1988. p. 17. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (2001). Perpetual happiness: the Ming emperor Yongle. University of Washington Press. p. 23. ISBN 0295800224. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ Stearns, Peter N., et al. World Civilizations: The Global Experience. AP Edition DBQ Update. New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006. 508.
- ^ Stearns, Peter N., et al. World Civilizations: The Global Experience. AP Edition DBQ Update. New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006. 511.
- ^ "ȼ䡢Ⱥʷ". literature.org.cn.
- ^ 山西社科网 Archived 2012-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Marshall Cavendish Corporation, Steven Maddocks, Dale Anderson, Jane Bingham, Peter Chrisp, Christopher Gavett (2006). Exploring the Middle Ages. Marshall Cavendish. p. 519. ISBN 0-7614-7613-X. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ (In Chinese) She Yiyuan (佘一元), Shanhaiguan Chronicle (山海关志)
- ^ "略論明太祖的教化性敕撰書" (PDF). Rwxy.tsinghua.edu.cn. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ "..::中国法学网::." iolaw.org.cn.
- ^ "朱元璋的滥杀心理及其影响初探". Studa.net. 4 February 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ 劉辰. 國初事迹
- ^ 李默. 孤樹裒談
- ^ 楊一凡(1988). 明大誥研究. Jiangsu Renmin Press.
- ^ "洪武移民传说". Jijiever.bokee.com. Archived from the original on 19 August 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "鞍山老人万里寻祖20年探出"小云南"". News.eastday.com. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ http://ido.3mt.com.cn/Article/200609/show499881c17p1.html
- ^ 元末明初的士人活動 - 歷史學科中心
- ^ "有趣的南京地名". People.com.cn. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ 长乐街：秦淮影照古廊房
- ^ 馬生龍. 鳳凰台紀事
- ^ 徐禎卿. 剪勝野聞
- ^ History of Ming, vol.139
- ^ 吳晗, 胡惟庸黨案考
- ^ 錢謙益, 初學集 vol.104
- ^ 藍玉黨供狀
- ^ "朱元璋多疑殺人數萬？ 明初空印案之謎". Stnn.cc:82. 1 February 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ "小说_免费小说_电子书免费阅读-新浪读书". sina.com.cn.
- ^ 南北榜，科场案制造20多个冤鬼[dead link]
- ^ John Makeham (2008). China: The World's Oldest Living Civilization Revealed. Thames & Hudson. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-500-25142-3.
- ^ Tan Ta Sen, Dasheng Chen (2000). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 291. ISBN 981-230-837-7. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ^ Shoujiang Mi, Jia You (2004). Islam in China. 五洲传播出版社. p. 205. ISBN 7-5085-0533-6. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ^ China China archaeology and art digest, Volume 3, Issue 4. Art Text (HK) Ltd. 2000. p. 29. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ^ ()The history of women's mosques in Chinese Islam: a mosque of their own (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. 2000. p. 77. ISBN 0-7007-1302-6. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
For instance, in the early years of the Hongwu Emperor's reign in the Ming Dynasty, His Majesty ordered to have mosques built in Xijing and Nanjing [the capital cities] and in southern Yunnan, Fujian and Guangdong. His Majesty also personally wrote baizizan [a eulogy] in praise of the Prophet's virtues. The Ming Emperor Xuanzong once issued imperial orders to build a mosque in Nanjing in response to Zheng He's request (Liu Zhi, 1984 reprint: 358–374). Mosques built by imperial decree raised the social position of Islam, and assistance from upper-class Muslims helped to sustain religious sites in certain areas.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|authors=ignored (help) - ^ Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 57 (1), Springer: 25–60 [26], doi:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z, ISSN 1432-0657
- ^ Edward L. Dreyer (1982). Early Ming China: a political history, 1355–1435. Stanford University Press. p. 117. ISBN 0-8047-1105-4. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
- ^ Kenneth Warren Chase (2003). Firearms: a global history to 1700. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-521-82274-2. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
- ^ Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K., eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644. Contributors Denis Twitchett, John K. Fairbank (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 229. ISBN 0521243327. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ Alastair Iain Johnston (1998). Cultural realism: strategic culture and grand strategy in Chinese history. Princeton University Press. p. 223. ISBN 0-691-00239-8. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
- ^ David Chan-oong Kang (2007). China rising: peace, power, and order in East Asia. Columbia University Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-231-14188-2. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
- ^ Stearns, Peter N., et al. World Civilizations: The Global Experience. AP Edition DBQ Update. New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006. 366.
- ^ Ebrey, "Cambridge Illustrated History of China", pg. 190
- ^ Simon Leys, 'Ravished by Oranges' in New York Review of Books 20 December 2007 p.8
- ^ from the History of Ming s:zh:明史/卷51 Zh.wikisource
- ^ "―故宫过客". Qzwb.com. 31 October 2006. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ 陳夢雷. 古今圖書集成·宮闈典·宫女部雜錄
- ^ 呂瑟. 明朝小史, vol.1
- ^ "明太祖《紀非錄》書後：秦周齊潭魯代靖江諸王罪行敘錄" (PDF). Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ 陈学霖(2001). 史林漫识. China Friendship Publishing Company.
- ^ 史夢蘭. 全史宮詞
- ^ "街巷轶事". App.hzxc.gov.cn. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ 查繼佐. 罪惟錄, vol.3
- ^ "朱元璋陪葬妃子怎么死的?专家:上吊或灌水银——华夏文明——中国经济网". Cathay.ce.cn. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ Association Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge history of China, Volume 2; Volume 8. Cambridge University Press. p. 292. ISBN 0-521-24333-5. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
- ^ His mother was an unnamed concubine of Zhu Yi.
References
- Dreyer, Edward. (1982). Early Ming China: A Political History. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1105-4.
- Stearns, Peter N., et al. (2006). World Civilizations: The Global Experience. AP Edition DBQ Update. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
- History of Ming, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3
Further reading
- Anita M. Andrew; John A. Rapp (1 January 2000). Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 110–. ISBN 978-0-8476-9580-5.
- Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0 (Paperback).
- John W. Dardess (1983). Confucianism and Autocracy: Professional Elites in the Founding of the Ming Dynasty. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04733-4.
- John W. Dardess (1968). Background Factors in the Rise of the Ming Dynasty. Columbia University.
