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Peopling of India

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See also: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia

The peopling of India refers to the migration of Humans and Humanoids into India. Evidence of humanoid population in India may stretch as far back as 1,500,000 years before today. Modern humans settled by multiple human migrations over tens of millennia.[1] The first migrants were the Negritos, after 60,000 years ago. The Andamanese people of the Andaman Islands are descendants of these earliest migrants. The Negrito may have been displaced by migrating Austroasiatic-speaking Australoid people. In neolithic times the Dravidians came, followed by the Indo-Europeans.

The peopling of India is a contentious area of research and discourse, due to the debate on topics such as the Indo-Aryan migration theory.[2]

Early hominins of Acheulean period

The presence of intelligent hominins in the subcontinent may stretch as far back as 1,500,000 ybp to the Acheulean period.[3]

Modern humans

Main article: Recent African origin of modern humans

Pre- or post-Toba

The dating of the of the earliest succesfull migration modern humans out of Africa is a matter of dispute.[4] It may have happened either pre- or post-Toba, a catastrophic volcanic eruption that took place between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba. Stone tools discovered below the layers of ash disposed in India may point to a pre-Toba dispersal, but the exact source of these tools is disputed.[4] An indication for post-Toba is haplo-group L3, that originated before the dispersal of humans out of Africa, and can be dated to 60,000–70,000 years ago, "suggesting that humanity left Africa a few thousand years after Toba."[4]

It has been hypothesized that the Toba supereruption about 74,000 years ago destroyed much of India's central forests, covering it with a layer of volcanic ash, and may have brought humans worldwide to a state of near-extinction by suddenly plunging the planet into an ice-age that could have lasted for up to 1,800 years.[5] If true, this may "explain the apparent bottleneck in human populations that geneticists believe occurred between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago" and the relative "lack of genetic diversity among humans alive today."[5]

Since the Toba event is believed to have had such a harsh impact and "specifically blanketed the Indian subcontinent in a deep layer of ash," it was "difficult to see how India's first colonists could have survived this greatest of all disasters."[6] Therefore, it was believed that all humans previously present in India went extinct during, or shortly after, this event and these first Indians left "no trace of their DNA in present-day humans" - a theory seemingly backed by genetic studies.[7]

Research published in 2009 by a team led by Michael Petraglia of the University of Oxford suggested that some humans may have survived the hypothesized catastrophe on the Indian mainland. Undertaking "Pompeii-like excavations" under the layer of Toba ash, the team discovered tools and human habitations from both before and after the eruption.[8] However, human fossils have not been found from this period, and nothing is known of the ethnicity of these early humans in India.[8] Recent research also by Macauly et al. (2005)[9][10] and Posth et al. (2016),[11] also argue for a post-Toba dispersal.[10]

Ancestral Components

India harbors four distinct ancestral components which has contributed to the gene pools of extant populations of Indian subcontinent.[12][note 1]

  • ANI - Ancestral North Indian
  • ASI - Ancestral South Indian
  • AAA - Ancestral Austro-Asiatic
  • ATB - Ancestral Tibeto-Burman

The Andaman Islands archipelago was peopled by members of a distinct, fifth ancestry not related to the above four.[12][note 2]

Ancestral South Indians and Ancestral North Indians

Main article: ASI and ANI

Reich et al. (2009) discerned two major ancestral components in India,[14][15][16] namely the Ancestral North Indians (ANI) which is "genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans," and the Ancestral South Indians (ASI) which is clearly distinct from ANI[14] and "not closely related to groups outside the subcontinent."[17] According to Basu et al. (2016), the ASI are earliest settlers in India, possibly arriving on the southern exit wave out of Africa.[12][note 3] These two groups mixed in India between 4,200 to 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE-100 CE), whereafter a shift to endogamy took place,[16] possibly by the enforcement of "social values and norms" by the "Hindu Gupta rulers."[18]

Moorjani et al. (2013) describe three scenarios regarding the bringing together of the two groups: migrations before the development of agriculture (8,000–9,000 years before present (BP); migration of western Asian people together with the spread of agriculture, maybe up to 4,600 years BP; migrations of western Eurasians from 3,000 to 4,000 years BP.[19]

According to Moorjani et al. (2013), the ANI and the ASI were plausibly present "unmixed" in India before 2,200 BC.[16]

Glacial period and Paleolithic revolution

Modern humans moved out of Africa circa 50,000 years ago, during the last glacial period (Würm glaciation) and at the onset of the socalled Paleolithic revolution.

Australasians

Migrations routes according to the Coastal Migration Model
Note the route of the mtDNA Haplogroup M through the Indian subcontinent, to Andaman Islands and Southeast Asia.
Note the route of the Y-DNA Haplogroup C through the Indian subcontinent to Australia.
Y-DNA Haplogroup F and it's descendants.

Australasian Andamese Negritos

See also: Sentinelese language and Sentinelese people

According to both Wells and Mason, the Australasian Negritos, similar to the Andamanese adivasis of today, were the first identifiable human population to colonize India, likely 30-65 thousand years before present (kybp).[20][21] This first colonization of the Indian mainland and the Andaman Islands by humans is theorized to be part of a great coastal migration of humans from Africa along the coastal regions of the Indian mainland and towards Southeast Asia, Japan and Oceania.[20]

The Negrito peoples are believed to descend from ancient Australoid-Melanesian settlers of Southeast Asia. Genetically, these peoples also show similarities to their neighboring populations. The appropriateness of using the label 'Negrito' to bundle together peoples of different ethnicity based on similarities in stature and complexion has been challenged.[22]

The Andamanese are believed to be descended from the migrations which, about 60,000 years ago, brought the first modern humans out of Africa to the Andaman Islands. Andamanese women carry M32 mtDNA, which is unique and universal among Andamanese islander, other variants of the mtDNA haplogroup M is found 60% of all modern South Asians and might be a genetic legacy of the postulated first settlers.[23] A 2010 study by the Anthropological Survey of India and the Texas-based Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research identified seven genomes from 26 isolated "relic tribes" (sic) from the Indian mainland, such as the Baiga, which share "two synonymous polymorphisms with the M42 haplogroup, which is specific to Australian Aborigines." These were specific mtDNA mutations that are shared exclusively by Australian aborigines and these Indian tribes, and no other known human groupings.[24]

Hypothesized Australoid replecament migrations

Some anthropologists theorize that the original Australasian Negrito settlers of India were displaced by different, migrating Austroasiatic-speaking Australoid people, who largely shared skin pigmentation and physiognomy with the Negritos, but had straight rather than kinky hair. Adivasi tribes such as the Irulas trace their origins to that displacement.[25][26] The Oraon adivasi tribe of eastern India and the Korku tribe of western India are considered to be examples of groups of Australoid origin.[27][28]

Dravidian and Indo-Aryan migrations

Neolithic

Main articles: Neolithic and Neolithic revolution

After the last Glacial maximum, human populations started to grow and migrate. With the invention of agriculture, the socalled Neolithic revolution, larger amounts of people could be sustained. The use of metals (copper, bronze, iron) further changed human ways of life, giving an initial advance to early users, and aiding further migrations, and admixture.

Dravidians

See also: Dravidian peoples, Indus Valley Civilisation, and Mehrgarh

According to David McAlpin, the Dravidian languages were brought to India by immigration into India from Elam.[29][30] According to Renfrew and Cavalli-Sforza, proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent.[31][32][33][note 4] According to Mikhail Andronov, Dravidian languages were brought to India at the beginning of the third millennium BCE.[34]

Kivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the West Eurasian mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture."[35] at ca. 9,300 ± 3,000 years before present,[36] which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent" and "lends credence to the suggested linguistic connection between the Elamite and Dravidic populations."[36]

According to Gallego Romero et al. (2011), their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran and the Middle East."[37] Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic pattern regarding this tolerance which is "characteristic of the common European mutation."[38] According to Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a two-way migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation eastward to India – likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found."[38]

According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "The presence of mtDNA haplogroups (HV14 and U1a) and Y-chromosome haplogroup (L1) in Dravidian populations indicates the spread of the Dravidian language into India from west Asia."[39]

Asko Parpola, who regards the Harappans to have been Dravidian, notes that Mehrgarh (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE), to the west of the Indus River valley,[40] is a precursor of the Indus Valley Civilisation, whose inhabitants migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.[41] It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.[42][43] According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and chalcolithic (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh,[44] which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow."[44] They further noted that "the direct lineal descendents of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to be found to the south and the east of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau," with neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalocolithic Inamgaon, south of Mehrgarh, than with chalcolithic Mehrgarh.[44]

Indo-Aryan migrations

Main article: Indo-Aryan migrations
Scheme of Indo-European migrations, of which the Indo-Aryan migrations form a part, from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the Kurgan hypothesis.
* The magenta area corresponds to the assumed Urheimat (Samara culture, Sredny Stog culture) and the subsequent Yamna culture.
* The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to c. 2500 BCE.
* The orange area to 1000 BCE.[45]

The Indo-Aryan migration theory[note 5] explains the introduction of the Indo-Aryan languages in the Indian subcontinent by proposing migrations from the Sintashta culture[47][48] through Bactria-Margiana Culture and into the northern Indian subcontinent (modern day India, Pakistan and Nepal). It is based on linguistic similarities between northern Indian and western European languages, and supported by archeological and anthropological research. They form part of a complex genetical puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population.

The Indo-Aryan migrations started in approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. It was part of the diffusion of Indo-European languages from the proto-Indo-European homeland at the Pontic steppe, a large area of grasslands in far Eastern Europe, which started in the 5th to 4th millennia BCE, and the Indo-European migrations out of the Eurasian steppes, which started approximately in 2,000 BCE.[49][46]

The theory posits that these Indo-Aryan speaking people may have been a genetically diverse group of people who were united by shared cultural norms and language, referred to as aryā, "noble." Diffusion of this culture and language took place by patron-client systems, which allowed for the absorption and acculturalisation of other groups into this culture, and explains the strong influence on other cultures with which it interacted.

The idea of an Indo-Aryan immigration was developed shortly after the discovery of the Indo-European language family in the late 18th century, when similarities between western and Indian languages had been noted. Given these similarities, a single source or origin was proposed, which was diffused by migrations from some original homeland. This linguistic argument[50] is complemented with archaeological, literary, and cultural evidence, and research and discussions on it continue.

The Proto-Indo-Iranians, from which the Indo-Aryans developed, are identified with the Sintashta culture (2100–1800 BCE),[51] and the Andronovo culture,[52] which flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in the steppes around the Aral sea, present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The proto-Indo-Iranians were influenced by the Bactria-Margiana Culture, south of the Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians,[53] whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Levant and north-western India.

Tibeto-Burmans

Main article: Tibeto-Burman languages

According to Cordaux et al. (2004), the Tibeto-Burmans possibly came from the Himalayan and north-eastern borders of the subcontinent within the past 4,200 years.[54]

A wide variety of Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Sizable groups that have been identified are the West Himalayish languages of Himachal Pradesh and western Nepal, the Tamangic languages of western Nepal, including Tamang with one million speakers, and the Kiranti languages of eastern Nepal. The remaining groups are small, with several isolates.

The Newar language (Nepal Bhasa) of central Nepal has a million speakers and a literature dating from the 12th century, and nearly a million people speak Magaric languages, but the rest have small speech communities. Other isolates and small groups in Nepal are Dura, Raji–Raute, Chepangic and Dhimalish. Lepcha is spoken in an area from eastern Nepal to western Bhutan.[55] Most of the languages of Bhutan are Bodish, but it also has three small isolates, 'Ole ("Black Mountain Monpa"), Lhokpu and Gongduk and a larger community of speakers of Tshangla.[56]

Crossovers in languages and ethnicity

One complication in studying various population groups is that ethnic origins and linguistic affiliations in India match only inexactly: while the Oraon adivasis are classified as an Australoid group, their language, called Kurukh, is Dravidian.[57] Nicobarese is considered to be Mongoloid groups[58][59] and the Munda and Santals are Australoid groups,[60][61][62] but all four speak Austro-Asiatic languages.[58][59][60] The Bhils and Gonds are frequently classified as Australoid groups,[63] yet Bhil languages are Indo-European and the Gondi language is Dravidian.[57]

Debate

The peopling of India is a contentious area of research and discourse, due to the debate on topics such as the Indo-Aryan migration theory.[2]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Basu et al. (2016): "By sampling populations, especially the autochthonous tribal populations, which represent the geographical, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of India, we have inferred that at least four distinct ancestral components—not two, as estimated earlier have contributed to the gene pools of extant populations of mainland India."[13]
  2. ^ Basu et al. (2016): "The Andaman archipelago was peopled by members of a distinct, fifth ancestry."[13]
  3. ^ Basu et al. (2016): "The absence of significant resemblance with any of the neighboring populations is indicative of the ASI and the AAA being early settlers in India, possibly arriving on the “southern exit” wave out of Africa. Differentiation between the ASI and the AAA possibly took place after their arrival in India."[13]
  4. ^ Derenko: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern Asia. It is hypothesized that the proto-Elamo-Dravidian language, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran, spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-continent."[33]

    Derenko refers to:
    * Renfrew (1987), Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins
    * Renfrew (1996), Language families and the spread of farming. In: Harris DR, editor, The origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, pp. 70–92
    * Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, Piazza (1994), The History and Geography of Human Genes.
  5. ^ The term "invasion" is only being used nowadays by opponents of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.[46] The term "invasion" does not reflect the contemporary scholarly understanding of the Indo-Aryan migrations,[46] and is merely being used in a polemical and distractive way.

References

  1. ^ Ludwig Gumplowicz and Irving Louis Horowitz (1980), Outlines of Sociology, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0-87855-693-1, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... The Negritos were the earliest inhabitants of India ... The Proto-Australoids who followed them had their type more or less fixed in India and therefore may be considered to be the true aborigines. Thereafter the Austro-Asiatic peoples came ... the Indo Aryans came and settled in India; so, too, did the Dravidians ... This being the state of our knowledge regarding the peopling of India, it would be hazardous to look upon one particular section of the population as the aborigines of India ...
  2. ^ a b Edwin Bryant and Laurie L. Patton (2005), The Indo-Aryan Controversy, Routledge, ISBN 0-7007-1462-6, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... we now exist in an era where one's use of evidence is inevitably suspect of being linked to nationalist, colonialist, or cultural agendas ... No issue is more illustrative of this impasse than the debate about Aryan origins ...
  3. ^ Early Pleistocene Presence of Acheulian Hominins in South India
  4. ^ a b c Appenzeller 2015.
  5. ^ a b "Supervolcano Eruption - In Sumatra - Deforested India 73,000 Years Ago", ScienceDaily, Nov 24, 2009, retrieved Mar 1, 2011, ... new study provides "incontrovertible evidence" that the volcanic super-eruption of Toba on the island of Sumatra about 73,000 years ago deforested much of central India, some 3,000 miles from the epicenter ... initiating an "Instant Ice Age" that - according to evidence in ice cores taken in Greenland - lasted about 1,800 years ...
  6. ^ Stephen Oppenheimer, Out of Eden: the peopling of the world, Robinson, 2004, ISBN 978-1-84119-894-1, ... The Toba event specifically blanketed the Indian subcontinent in a deep layer of ash. It is difficult to see how India's first colonists could have survived this greatest of all disasters. So, we could predict a broad human extinction ...
  7. ^ Michael D. Petraglia, Bridget Allchin, The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics, Springer, 2007, ISBN 978-1-4020-5561-4, ... had H. sapiens colonized India before the eruption? The majority of genetic evidence seems to suggest that the initial colonization of India took place soon after the Toba event. It should be noted, however, that on the basis of this evidence, the hypothesis that modern human populations inhabited India before ~74ka and underwent extinction as a result of Toba cannot be ruled out. If population extinction occurred, there would be no trace of their DNA in present-day humans ...
  8. ^ a b New evidence shows populations survived the Toba super-eruption 74,000 years ago, University of Oxford, Feb 22, 2009, retrieved Mar 1, 2011, ... Newly discovered archaeological sites in southern and northern India have revealed how people lived before and after the colossal Toba volcanic eruption 74,000 years ago. The international, multidisciplinary research team, led by Oxford University in collaboration with Indian institutions, has uncovered what it calls 'Pompeii-like excavations' beneath the Toba ash ... suggests that human populations were present in India prior to 74,000 years ago, or about 15,000 years earlier than expected based on some genetic clocks,' said project director Dr Michael Petraglia ...
  9. ^ Macauly 2005.
  10. ^ a b Bradshaw Foundation, Human Migration
  11. ^ Posth 2016.
  12. ^ a b c Basu 2016.
  13. ^ a b c Basu 2016, p. 1598.
  14. ^ a b Reich et al. 2009.
  15. ^ Metspalu et al. 2011.
  16. ^ a b c Moorjani et al. 2013.
  17. ^ Moorjani 2013.
  18. ^ Basu et al. 2016, p. 1598.
  19. ^ Moorjani et al. 2013, p. 422-423.
  20. ^ a b Spencer Wells (2002), The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-11532-X, ... the population of south-east Asia prior to 6000 years ago was composed largely of groups of hunter-gatherers very similar to modern Negritos ... So, both the Y-chromosome and the mtDNA paint a clear picture of a coastal leap from Africa to south-east Asia, and onward to Australia ... DNA has given us a glimpse of the voyage, which almost certainly followed a coastal route va India ...
  21. ^ Jim Mason (2005), An Unnatural Order: The Roots of Our Destruction of Nature, Lantern Books, ISBN 1-59056-081-7, ... Australia's "aboriginal" peoples are another case in point. At the end of the Ice Age, their homeland stretched from the middle of India eastward into southeast Asia and as far south as Indonesia and nearby islands. As agriculture spread from its centers in southeast Asia, these pre-Australoid forager people moved farther southward to New Guinea and Australia. ...
  22. ^ Manickham 2009.
  23. ^ Rajkumar, Revathi; et al. (2005). "Phylogeny and antiquity of M macrohaplogroup inferred from complete mt DNA sequence of Indian specific lineages". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 5: 26. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-5-26. PMC 1079809. PMID 15804362.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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  25. ^ K.V. Zvelebil (1982), The Irula language, O. Harrassowitz, ISBN 3-447-02247-7, ... into the low jungles of the Nilgiris (such movement might have been instigated eg by the advancing Australoids pushing out an earlier pre-Australoid ...)
  26. ^ Stephen Fuchs (1974), The Aboriginal Tribes of India, Macmillan India, ... Guha thinks that the Negritos were the earliest racial element in India. He believes that the Kadar, Irulas and Panyans of south India have a Negrito strain, even though he admits that they are not pure Negritos ...
  27. ^ S. Neeta and V.K. Kashyap (January 2004), Allelic variation at 15 microsatellite loci in one important Australoid and two Indocaucasoid groups of Chhattisgarh, India, vol. 49, Journal of Forensic Sciences, ISSN 0022-1198, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... Among the studied population groups, Oraon is a tribal group, conventionally agriculture-based, ethnically Australoid. They are confined to the small villages and do not prefer to marry outside their community maintaining the genetic make-up without any admixture. ...
  28. ^ N. Saha and H.K. Goswami (1987), Some Blood Genetic Markers in the Korkus of Central India, vol. 37, International Journal of Human and Medical Genetics, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... A sample of 102 individuals from the Korkus tribe, an Australoid race inhabiting Central India, was studied for the distribution of haemoglobin and ten red cell enzyme types ...
  29. ^ David McAlpin, "Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian", Language vol. 50 no. 1 (1974); David McAlpin: "Elamite and Dravidian, Further Evidence of Relationships", Current Anthropology vol. 16 no. 1 (1975); David McAlpin: "Linguistic prehistory: the Dravidian situation", in Madhav M. Deshpande and Peter Edwin Hook: Aryan and Non-Aryan in India, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1979); David McAlpin, "Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol. 71 pt. 3, (1981)
  30. ^ Dhavendra Kumar (2004), Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent, Springer, ISBN 1-4020-1215-2, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ...
  31. ^ Cavalli-Sforza 1994, p. 221-222.
  32. ^ Namita Mukherjee, Almut Nebel, Ariella Oppenheim and Partha P. Majumder (December 2001), "High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India" (PDF), Journal of Genetics, 80 (3), Springer India: 125–35, doi:10.1007/BF02717908, PMID 11988631, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... More recently, about 15,000-10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp ...{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  34. ^ Andronov 2003, p. 299.
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  36. ^ a b Kivisild 1999, p. 1333.
  37. ^ Gallego Romero & 202011, p. 9.
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  41. ^ Parpola 2015, p. 17.
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  46. ^ a b c Witzel 2005, p. 348.
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  48. ^ Kuz'mina 2007, p. 222.
  49. ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 33.
  50. ^ Bryant 2001.
  51. ^ Anthony 2009, p. 390 (fig. 15.9), 405-411.
  52. ^ Anthony 2009, p. 49.
  53. ^ Anthony 2007, p. 408.
  54. ^ Richard Cordaux , Gunter Weiss, Nilmani Saha and Mark Stoneking (2004), "The Northeast Indian Passageway: A Barrier or Corridor for Human Migrations?", Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21, Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution: 1525–33, doi:10.1093/molbev/msh151, PMID 15128876, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... Our coalescence analysis suggests that the expansion of Tibeto-Burman speakers to northeast India most likely took place within the past 4,200 years ...{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ van Driem (2007), p. 296.
  56. ^ van Driem (2011a).
  57. ^ a b Jim Cummins and David Corson (1999), Bilingual Education, Springer, ISBN 0792348060, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... over one million speakers each: Bhili (Indo-Aryan) 4.5 million; Santali (Austric) 4.2 m; Gondi (Dravidian) 2.0 m; and Kurukh (Dravidian) 1.3 million ...
  58. ^ a b R. Khongsdier, Nandita Mukherjee (2003), "Growth and nutritional status of Khasi boys in Northeast India relating to exogamous marriages and socioeconomic classes", American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 122 (2): 162–70, doi:10.1002/ajpa.10305, PMID 12949836, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... The Khasis are one of the Indo-Mongoloid tribes in Northeast India. They speak the Monkhmer language, which belongs to the Austro-Asiatic group (Das, 1978) ...
  59. ^ a b Govinda Chandra Rath (2006), Tribal Development in India: The Contemporary Debate, SAGE, ISBN 0761934235, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... The Car Nicobarese are of Mongoloid stock ... The Nicobarese speak different languages of the Nicobarese group, which belongs to an Austro-Asiatic language sub-family ...
  60. ^ a b Malini Srivastava (2007), "The Sacred Complex of Munda Tribe" (PDF), Anthropologist, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... Racially, they are proto-australoid and speak Mundari dialect of Austro-Asiatic ...
  61. ^ A. B. Chaudhuri (1993), State Formation Among Tribals: A Quest for Santal Identity, Gyan Publishing House, ISBN 8121204224, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... The Santal is a large Proto-Australoid tribe found in West Bengal, northern Orissa, Bihar, Assam as also in Bangladesh ... The solidarity having been broken, the Santals are gradually adopting languages of the areas inhabited, like Oriya in Orissa, Hindi in Bihar and Bengali in West Bengal and Bangladesh ...
  62. ^ A. B. Chaudhuri (1949), Tribal Heritage: A Study of the Santals, Lutterworth Press, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... The Santals belong to his second "main race", the Proto-Australoid, which he considers arrived in India soon after the Negritos ...
  63. ^ U. Shankarkumar (2003), "A Correlative Study of HLA, Sickle Cell Gene and G6PD Deficiency with Splenomegaly and Malaria Incidence Among Bhils and Pawra Tribes from Dhadgon, Dhule, Maharastra" (PDF), Studies of Tribes and Tribals, 1 (2): 91–94, retrieved 2008-11-25, ... The Bhils are one of the largest tribes concentrated mainly in Western Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Eastern Gujarat and Northern Maharastra. Racially they were classified as Gondids, Malids or Proto-Australoid, but their social history is still a mystery (Bhatia and Rao, 1986) ...

Sources

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