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Stutthof concentration camp

Coordinates: 54°19′44″N 19°09′14″E / 54.32889°N 19.15389°E / 54.32889; 19.15389
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"Stutthof" redirects here. Not to be confused with Struthof or Stuthof.

54°19′44″N 19°09′14″E / 54.32889°N 19.15389°E / 54.32889; 19.15389

Stutthof
Nazi concentration camp
Prisoner barracks after liberation
Operated byGerman government
CommandantMax Pauly, September 1939 – August 1942
Paul-Werner Hoppe, August 1942 – January 1945
Operational2 September 1939 – 9 May 1945
InmatesJews and political prisoners
Number of inmates110,000
Killed63,000 - 65,000 (including 28,000 Jews)
Liberated byRed Army
Map of the main camp after expansion. The German armaments factory DAW to the right (black, outlined in red) by the prisoner barracks. Death gate marked with an arrow, next to the red-brick SS administration building.

Stutthof was a Nazi concentration camp established by Nazi Germany in a secluded, marshy, and wooded area near the small town of Sztutowo (Template:Lang-de) 34 km (21 mi) east of the city of Danzig in the former territory of the Free City of Danzig. The camp was set up around existing structures after the invasion of Poland in World War II and initially used for the imprisonment of Polish leaders and intelligentsia.[1][2] The actual barracks were built the following year by prisoners.[3]

Stutthof was the first German concentration camp set up outside German borders in World War II, in operation from 2 September 1939. It was also the last camp liberated by the Allies on 9 May 1945.[4] It is estimated that between 63,000 and 65,000 prisoners of Stutthof concentration camp and its subcamps died as a result of murder, starvation, epidemics, extreme labour conditions, brutal and forced evacuations, and a lack of medical attention. Some 28,000 of those who died were Jews. In total, as many as 110,000 people were deported to the camp in the course of its existence. About 24,600 were transferred from Stutthof to other locations.[3]

Camp

The camp was established in connection with the ethnic cleansing project that included the liquidation of Polish elites (members of the intelligentsia, religious and political leaders) in the Danzig area and Western Prussia.[1]

Even before the war began, the German Selbstschutz in Pomerania created lists of people to be arrested,[3] and the Nazi authorities were secretly reviewing suitable places to set up concentration camps in their area.

Originally, Stutthof was a civilian internment camp[5] under the Danzig police chief, before its subsequent massive expansion. In November 1941, it became a "labor education" camp (like Dachau), administered by the German Security Police.[6][7] Finally, in January 1942, Stutthof became a regular concentration camp.[1]

The original camp (known as the old camp) was surrounded by the barbed-wire fence. It comprised eight barracks for the inmates and a "Kommandantur" for the SS guards, totaling 120,000 m². In 1943, the camp was enlarged and a new camp was constructed alongside the earlier one. It was also surrounded by electrified barbed-wire fence and contained thirty new barracks, raising the total area to 1.2 km² (0.5 sq mi). A crematorium and gas chamber[8] were added in 1943, just in time to start mass executions when Stutthof was included in the "Final Solution" in June 1944. Mobile gas wagons were also used to complement the maximum capacity of the gas chamber (150 people per execution) when needed.[citation needed]

Staff

Stutthof concentration camp administration

The camp staff consisted of German SS guards and after 1943, the Ukrainian auxiliaries brought in by SS-Gruppenführer Fritz Katzmann.[9]

In 1942 the first German female SS Aufseherinnen guards arrived at Stutthof along with female prisoners. A total of 295 women guards worked as staff in the Stutthof complex of camps.[10]

Among the notable female guard personnel were: Elisabeth Becker, Erna Beilhardt, Ella Bergmann, Ella Blank, Gerda Bork, Herta Bothe, Erna Boettcher, Hermine Boettcher-Brueckner, Steffi Brillowski, Charlotte Graf, Charlotte Gregor, Charlotte Klein, Gerda Steinhoff, Ewa Paradies, and Jenny-Wanda Barkmann. Thirty-four female guards including Becker, Bothe, Steinhoff, Paradies, and Barkmann were identified later as having committed crimes against humanity. The SS in Stutthof began conscripting women from Danzig and the surrounding cities in June 1944, to train as camp guards because of their severe shortage after the women's subcamp of Stutthof called Bromberg-Ost (Konzentrationslager Bromberg-Ost) was set up in the city of Bydgoszcz.[11]

Several Norwegian Waffen SS volunteers worked as guards or as instructors for prisoners from Nordic countries, according to senior researcher at the Norwegian Center for Studies of Holocaust and Religious Minorities, Terje Emberland.[12]

Prisoners

Stutthof prisoners eat during a break in the construction of the camp, October 1939

The first 150 inmates, imprisoned on 2 September 1939, were selected among Poles and Jews arrested in Danzig immediately after the outbreak of war.[3] The inmate population rose to 6,000 in the following two weeks, on 15 September 1939.[citation needed] Until 1942, nearly all of the prisoners were Polish. The number of inmates increased considerably in 1944, with Jews forming a significant proportion of the newcomers. The first contingent of 2,500 Jewish prisoners arrived from Auschwitz in July 1944. In total, 23,566 Jews (including 21,817 women) were transferred to Stutthof from Auschwitz, and 25,053 (including 16,123 women) from camps in the Baltic states.[1] When the Soviet army began its advance through German-occupied Estonia in July and August 1944, the camp staff of Klooga concentration camp evacuated the majority of the inmates by sea and sent them to Stutthof.[13] Other sources say that the camp staff evacuated but shot most remaining inmates in a mass murder.[14]

Stutthof's registered inmates included citizens of 28 countries, and besides Jews and Poles - Germans, Czechs, Dutch, Belgians, French, Norwegians, Finns, Danes, Lithuanians, Latvians, Belarusians, Russians and others. Among 110,000 prisoners were Jews from all of Europe, members of the Polish underground, Polish civilians deported from Warsaw during the Warsaw Uprising, Lithuanian and Latvian intelligentsia, Latvian resistance fighters, psychiatric patients, Soviet prisoners of war,[3] and communists (as an example of communist deportations to Stutthof, see the Danish Horserød camp). It is believed that inmates sent for immediate execution were not registered.[citation needed]

Conditions

A Polish POW stands at attention in the Appellplatz at Stutthof, 1939

Conditions in the camp were extremely harsh;[15] tens of thousands of prisoners succumbed to starvation and disease.[16] Many died in typhus epidemics that swept the camp in the winter of 1942 and again in 1944; those whom the SS guards judged too weak or sick to work were gassed in the camp's small gas chamber.[citation needed] The first executions were carried out on 11 January and 22 March 1940 - 89 Polish activists and government officials were shot.[3] Gassing with Zyklon B began in June 1944.[citation needed] 4,000 prisoners, including Jewish women and children, were killed in a gas chamber before the evacuation of the camp.[1] Another method of execution practiced in Stutthof was lethal injection of phenol.[16][3] Prisoners were also drowned in mud or clubbed to death.[16] Between 63,000 and 65,000 people died in the camp.[3]

A range of German organisations and individuals used Stutthof prisoners as forced laborers. Many prisoners worked in SS-owned businesses such as DAW (Deutsche Ausrüstungswerke), the heavily guarded armaments factory meaning literally the German Equipment Works which was located inside the camp (see map) next to prisoner barracks. Other inmates labored in local brickyards, in private industrial enterprises, in agriculture, or in the camp's own workshops. In 1944, as forced labor by concentration camp prisoners became increasingly important in armaments production, a Focke-Wulf aircraft factory was constructed at Stutthof. Eventually, the Stutthof camp system became a network of forced-labor camps. The Holocaust Encyclopedia estimates that (less officially) some 105 Stutthof subcamps were established throughout northern and central Poland. The major subcamps were in Toruń (Thorn) and in Elbląg (Elbing).[9][17]

Alleged human soap production

There is a controversy regarding whether corpses from Stutthof were used in small-scale production of soap made from human corpses at the lab of Professor Rudolf Spanner.[18][19][20] Joachim Neander argued that the production was experimental, contrary to some more sensational claims made in the previous years, and that the majority of Spanner's subjects came from other places than Stutthof.[21] In 2010, Polish historians Monika Tomkiewicz and Piotr Semków concluded that Spanner was unlikely to have "really occupied himself with the production of usable soap from human fat", and that any soap production in his laboratory was likely marginal.[18]

Both Monika Tomkiewicz and Pior Semkow do note that an investigation by Polish IPN carried out between 2002-2006 published among its findings that Spanner did indeed produce soap from human corpses.[22]Bożena Shallcross stated in 2011 Subsequently, survivors, activists of such stature as Simon Wiesenthal, as well as certain historians maintained that the soap was made of human fat. Later on, the fact was dismissed as not based on reality. However, the investigation was reactivated under the aegis of the National Remembrance Institute in Poland. When, thanks to the German prosecutors, an extant soap sample (considered lost) was discovered in the Hague archives, a series of tests was conducted. They confirmed that Spanner’s soap was made from human fat and, ultimately, corroborated the facts reported by Nałkowska.[23]

Sub-camps

The main German concentration camp in Stutthof had as many as 40 sub-camps during World War II. In total, the sub-camps held 110,000 prisoners from 25 countries according to the Jewish Virtual Library. The sub-camps of Stutthof included:[24][25]

  1. Bottschin in Bocień
  2. Bromberg-Ost in Bydgoszcz
  3. Chorabie (Chorab)
  4. Cieszyny
  5. Danzig–Burggraben in Kokoszki
  6. Danzig–Neufahrwasser
  7. Danziger Werft in Gdańsk
  8. Dzimianen (Dziemiany)
  9. Außenstelle Elbing in Elbląg
  10. Elbing / Org. Todt
  11. Elbing / Schichau-Werke
  12. Pölitz (Police near Szczecin)
  13. Gotenhafen in Gdynia
  14. Außenarbeitslager Gerdauen
  15. Graudenz in Grudziądz
  16. Grenzdorf (?)
  17. Grodno
  18. Gutowo
  19. Gwisdyn in Gwiździny
  20. KL Heiligenbeil (Mamonowo, Russia)
  21. Jesau/Juschny, Russia
  22. Kolkau
  23. Krzemieniewo
  24. Lauenburg
  25. Malken Mierzynek
  26. Camp Nawitz in Nawitz/Nawcz
  27. Niskie
  28. Obrzycko
  29. Praust/Pruszcz Gdański
  30. Brodnica
  31. Schirkenpass (Scherokopas)
  32. Schippenbeil/Sępopol, Poland
  33. Seerappen/Lyublino, Russia
  34. Sophienwalde
  35. Stolp/Słupsk
  36. Preußisch Stargard (Starogard Gdański)
  37. Bruss (Brusy)
  38. Thorn (AEG, Org. Todt) in Toruń

Commandants

The camp had two commanders:

Death march

Two crematoria of Stutthof, photographed after liberation
Camp memorial

The evacuation of prisoners from the Stutthof camp system began on 25 January 1945. When the final evacuation began, there were nearly 50,000 prisoners, the majority of them Jews, in the Stutthof camp system. About 5,000 prisoners from Stutthof subcamps were marched to the Baltic Sea coast, forced into the water, and machine-gunned. The rest of the prisoners were marched in the direction of Lauenburg in eastern Germany. Cut off by advancing Soviet forces the Germans forced the surviving prisoners back to Stutthof. Marching in severe winter conditions and brutal treatment by SS guards led to thousands of deaths.

In late April 1945, the remaining prisoners were removed from Stutthof by sea, since the camp was completely encircled by Soviet forces. Again, hundreds of prisoners were forced into the sea and shot. Over 4,000 were sent by small boat to Germany, some to the Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg, and some to camps along the Baltic coast. Many drowned along the way.

On 5 May 1945, a barge full of starving prisoners was towed into harbour at Klintholm Havn in Denmark where 351 of the 370 on board were saved. Shortly before the German surrender, some prisoners were transferred to Malmö, Sweden, and released into the care of that neutral country. It has been estimated that around half of the evacuated prisoners, over 25,000, died during the evacuation from Stutthof and its subcamps.[26]

Soviet forces liberated Stutthof on 9 May 1945, rescuing about 100 prisoners who had managed to hide.[26]

Stutthof trials

Main article: Stutthof trials
First row from left to right: Elisabeth Becker, Gerda Steinhoff (or Herta Bothe, see below), Wanda Klaff; Second row: Erna Beilhardt, Jenny Wanda Barkmann
The execution of the SS overseers of the Stutthof concentration camp: Becker, Klaff, Steinhoff, and Pauls on July 4, 1946, with priest

The well known Nuremberg Trials were only concerned with concentration camps as evidence for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed by the Third Reich leadership. Several lesser known trials followed against the staff of various concentration camps. Poland held four trials in Gdańsk against former guards and kapos of Stutthof, charging them with crimes of war and crimes against humanity.

The first trial was held from April 25 to May 31, 1946 against 30 ex-officials and prisoner-guards of the camp. The Soviet/Polish Special Criminal Court found all of them guilty of the charges. Eleven defendants including the former commander, Johann Pauls, were sentenced to death. The rest were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment.

The second trial was held from October 8 to October 31, 1947, before a Polish Special Criminal Court. Arraigned 24 ex-officials and guards of the Stutthof concentration camp were judged and found guilty. Ten were sentenced to death.

The third trial was held from November 5 to November 10, 1947, before a Polish Special Criminal Court. Arraigned 20 ex-officials and guards were judged; 19 were found guilty, and one was acquitted.

The fourth and final trial was also held before a Polish Special Criminal Court, from November 19 to November 29, 1947. Twenty-seven ex-officials and guards were arraigned and judged; 26 were found guilty, and one was acquitted.

An additional trial was attempted in November 2018, when Johann Rehbogen was accused of being an accessory to murder. There was no evidence to link him to specific killings, and though he admitted to serving at the camp, he said that he was unaware that people were being murdered there.[27][better source needed] He was charged as a juvenile, as he was under 21 at the time of the offense. Images in the news broadcasts concealed his face for legal reasons. Being tried at the age of 94, court proceedings were limited to no more than two hours per day and two non-consecutive days per week.[28][better source needed] In February 2019 the trial of a defendant matching this description (whom Reuters reported could not be named for legal reasons) was halted after a medical report was issued stating that the defendant was unfit to stand trial, the trial already having been suspended since the previous December.[29][30]

Another Nazi camp guard, Bruno Dey, from Hamburg was charged in October 2019 of contributing to the killings of 5,230 prisoners at Stutthof camp between 1944 and 1945. He was tried in a juvenile court due to being about 17 at that time.[31] On 23 July 2020, he was given a two-year suspended sentence by the court in Hamburg.[32]

Filming location

In 1999, Artur Żmijewski filmed a group of nude people playing tag in one of the Stutthof gas chambers, sparking outrage.[33][34][better source needed]

Notable inmates

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e Blatman, Daniel (2011). The Death Marches, The Final Phase of Nazi Genocide. Harvard University Press. pp. 111–112. ISBN 978-0674725980.
  2. ^ Maria Przyłucka (1977). Praca więźniów w obozie koncentracyjnym Stutthof [Prisoner labour at Stutthof] (PDF). Muzeum Stutthof w Sztutowie. p. 59 (4–5/19 in PDF). Retrieved 11 February 2015. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Stutthof State Museum. "History of the concentration camp in Stuttfof" [Obóz koncentracyjny Stutthof (1939-1945)] (in Polish). Sztutowo, Poland. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016.
  4. ^ "Stutthof, the first Nazi concentration camp outside Germany". JewishGen.org. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
  5. ^ Winstone, Martin (2010). The Holocaust Sites of Europe: An Historical Guide. I.B Tauris. p. 302. ISBN 978-1-84-885-290-7.
  6. ^ "Stutthof". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 2020-07-23.
  7. ^ https://www.goshen.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/75/2016/06/Oct10Rempel.pdf
  8. ^ "Stutthof Concentration Camp http://www.HolocaustResearchProject.org". www.holocaustresearchproject.org. Retrieved 2020-07-23. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
  9. ^ a b Holocaust Encyclopedia (20 June 2014). "Stutthof". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
  10. ^ Nunca Mas (2007), Datos de 295 Mujeres Pertenecientes a la SS: Christel Bankewitz, Stutthof, Historia Virtual del Holocausto, elholocausto.net; accessed 30 December 2017.
  11. ^ Benjamin B. Ferencz (2002). Less Than Slaves: Jewish Forced Labor and the Quest for Compensation. ISBN 0253215307. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
  12. ^ "Norske vakter jobbet i Hitlers konsentrasjonsleire". Retrieved 21 January 2013.
  13. ^ "WebCite query result" (PDF). www.webcitation.org. Retrieved 2020-07-23. {{cite web}}: Cite uses generic title (help)
  14. ^ "Klooga Concentration Camp and Holocauts Memorial. Basic Information". Issuu. Retrieved 2020-07-23.
  15. ^ Matussek, Paul; et al. (1975). Internment in Concentration Camps and Its Consequences. Springer-Verlag. p. 19. ISBN 978-3-642-66077-1.
  16. ^ a b c Gilbert, Martin (2002). The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust (3rd ed.). Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 0-415-28145-8.
  17. ^ Chris Webb, Carmelo Lisciotto (2007), Stutthof Concentration Camp. H.E.A.R.T at HolocaustResearchProject.org.
  18. ^ a b CIENCIALA, ANNA M. (2011). "Review of Profesor Rudolf Spanner 1895-1960. Naukowiec w III Rzeszy [Professor Rudolf Spanner 1895-1960: A Scientist in the Third Reich], , Piotr Semków". The Polish Review. 56 (3): 265–269. ISSN 0032-2970.
  19. ^ Shermer, Michael; Alex Grobman (2002). Denying history: Who says the Holocaust never happened and why do they say it?. Univ. of California Press. pp. 114–17.
  20. ^ Drobnicki, John A. "Soap from Human Fat: The Case of Professor Spanner." (2018).
  21. ^ Neander, Joachim (2006). "The Danzig Soap Case: Facts and Legends around "Professor Spanner" and the Danzig Anatomic Institute 1944-1945". German Studies Review. 29 (1): 63–86. ISSN 0149-7952.
  22. ^ M. Tomkiewicz, P. Semków: Profesor Rudolf Maria Spanner – naukowiec czy eksperymentator? Medycyna na usługach systemu eksterminacji ludności w Trzeciej Rzeszy i na terenach okupowanej Polski. Edited by G. Łukomski, G. Kucharski. Poznań–Gniezno 2011, page 131 . Należy odnotować, że prowadzone w latach 2002–2006 przez Oddziałową Komisję Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu w Gdańsku śledztwo potwierdziło, że w Instytucie Anatomicznym produkowano w czasie wojny mydło z tłuszczu ludzkiego, wprawdzie nie na skalę przemysłową, jednak do celów użytkowych:,translated:One should note that the investigation carried out in the years 2002–2006 by the District Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation in Gdańsk (Oddziałowa Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu w Gdańsku) proved that during the war soap from human fat was manufactured at the Anatomical Institute. It was not produced on an industrial scale, but still for utilitarian purpose
  23. ^ Bozena Shallcross (21 February 2011). The Holocaust Object in Polish and Polish-Jewish Culture. Indiana University Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-253-00509-4.
  24. ^ "Forgotten Camps: Stutthof". JewishGen.org. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
  25. ^ "Stutthof (Sztutowo): Full Listing of Camps, Poland" (Introduction). Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 7 October 2014. Source: Atlas of the Holocaust by Martin Gilbert (1982) {{cite web}}: External link in |format= (help)
  26. ^ a b "Stutthof". U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
  27. ^ Hope, Russell (6 November 2018). "Johann Rehbogen: Former SS guard, 94, on trial over deaths at Stutthof concentration camp". Sky News.
  28. ^ "Nazi guard Johann Rehbogen denies role in concentration camp murders". Sky News. 13 November 2018.
  29. ^ Ahlswede, Elke (2019-02-25). "German court stops trial of former death-camp guard".
  30. ^ "German court: Trial of Nazi guard unlikely to be restarted". Washington Post. Associated Press. 2019-02-25.
  31. ^ "Former Nazi camp guard to go on trial in Hamburg". The Guardian. 17 October 2019.
  32. ^ Oltermann, Philip (23 July 2020). "Nazi concentration camp guard convicted over 5,232 murders". The Guardian. Hamburg.
  33. ^ Harthorne, Michael (30 November 2017). "Outrage Over Naked Game of Tag Played in Nazi Gas Chamber".
  34. ^ "Outrage Over Museum's Video-Art Display of a Nude Game of Tag in Gas Chamber". 8 July 2015.

Sources

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