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Broccoli

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For other uses, see Broccoli (disambiguation).

Broccoli
SpeciesBrassica oleracea
Cultivar groupitalica
OriginItaly, more than 2,000 years ago[1][2]

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) is an edible green plant in the cabbage family (family Brassicaceae, genus Brassica) whose large flowering head, stalk and small associated leaves are eaten as a vegetable. The word broccoli comes from the Italian plural of broccolo, which means "the flowering crest of a cabbage", and is the diminutive form of brocco, meaning "small nail" or "sprout".[3]

Broccoli is classified in the Italica cultivar group of the species Brassica oleracea. Broccoli has large flower heads, usually dark green in color, arranged in a tree-like structure branching out from a thick stalk which is usually light green. The mass of flower heads is surrounded by leaves. Broccoli resembles cauliflower, which is a different but closely related cultivar group of the same Brassica species. In 2017, China and India combined produced 73% of the world's broccoli and cauliflower crops. [4] The United States ranks 3rd, India ranks 2nd and China ranks 1st in the production of broccoli all over the world.

Brocolli cannot be harvested using machines, which means it has to be hand-harvested which can very time-consuming and strenuous. Most farmers have to use a knife when they are harvesting broccoli. This vegetable is a great nutritious food that has good a source of calcium and can be incorporated into a healthy nutritious diet.

Broccoli resulted from breeding of landrace Brassica crops in the northern Mediterranean starting in about the sixth century BCE.[5] Broccoli has its origins in primitive cultivars grown in the Roman Empire and was most likely improved via artificial selection in the Southern Italian Peninsula or Sicily.[6][7][8] Broccoli was spread to northern Europe by the 18th century and brought to North America in the 19th century by Italian immigrants.[7] Later breeding of European, North American, Asian F1 hybrids supported international production.[7]

It is eaten either raw or cooked. Broccoli is a particularly rich source of vitamin C and vitamin K. Contents of its characteristic sulfur-containing glucosinolate compounds, isothiocyanates and sulforaphane, are diminished by boiling, but are better preserved by steaming, microwaving or stir-frying.[9]

Rapini, sometimes called "broccoli rabe", is a distinct species from broccoli, forming similar but smaller heads and is actually a type of turnip (Brassica rapa).

Other cultivar groups of Brassica oleracea

Broccoli plants in a nursery
Close-ups of broccoli florets (click to enlarge)

Other cultivar groups of Brassica oleracea include cabbage (Capitata Group), cauliflower and Romanesco broccoli (Botrytis Group), kale (Acephala Group), collard (Viridis Group), kohlrabi (Gongylodes Group), Brussels sprouts (Gemmifera Group), and kai-lan (Alboglabra Group).[10] As these groups are the same species, they readily hybridize; for example, Broccolini or "Tenderstem broccoli" is a cross between broccoli and Kai-lan.[11] Broccoli cultivars form the genetic basis of the "tropical cauliflowers" commonly grown in South and Southeastern Asia, although they produce a more cauliflower-like head in warmer conditions.[12][7]

Varieties

There are three commonly grown types of broccoli.[7] The most familiar is Calabrese broccoli, often referred to simply as "broccoli", named after Calabria in Italy. It has large (10 to 20 cm) green heads and thick stalks. It is a cool-season annual crop. Sprouting broccoli (white or purple) has a larger number of heads with many thin stalks.[13] Purple cauliflower or Violet Cauliflower is a type of broccoli grown in Europe and North America. It has a head shaped like cauliflower, but consisting of many tiny flower buds. It sometimes, but not always, has a purple cast to the tips of the flower buds. Purple cauliflower may also be white, red, green, or other colors.[14]

Other popular cultivars include Belstar, Blue Wind, Coronado Crown, Destiny, DiCicco, Green Goliath, Green Magic, Purple Sprouting, Romanesco, Sun King and Waltham 29.[15][8]

Beneforté is a variety of broccoli containing 2–3 times more glucoraphanin and produced by crossing broccoli with a wild Brassica variety, Brassica oleracea var villosa.[16]

Production

In 2018, global production of broccoli (combined for production reports with cauliflowers) was 26.5 million tonnes, with China and India together accounting for 74% of the world total.[4] Secondary producers, each having about one million tonnes or less annually, were the United States, Spain, and Mexico.

In the United States, broccoli is grown year-round in California – which produced 92% of the crop nationally – with 95% of the total crop produced for fresh sales in 2018.[17]

Broccoli production — 2018
(includes cauliflower)
Country Production
millions of tonnes
 China
10.7
 India
8.9
 United States
1.2
 Spain
0.7
 Mexico
0.7
World
26.5
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[4]

Cultivation

The majority of broccoli cultivars are cool-weather crops that do poorly in hot summer weather. Broccoli grows best when exposed to an average daily temperature between 18 and 23 °C (64 and 73 °F).[18][19] When the cluster of flowers, also referred to as a "head" of broccoli, appear in the center of the plant, the cluster is generally green. Garden pruners or shears are used to cut the head about an inch from the tip. Broccoli should be harvested before the flowers on the head bloom bright yellow.[20]

Pests

Mostly introduced by accident to North America, Australia and New Zealand, "cabbage worms", the larvae of Pieris rapae, also known as the "small white" butterfly, are a common pest in broccoli.[21]

Additional pests common to broccoli production include:[22]

Nutrition

Broccoli, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy141 kJ (34 kcal)
6.64 g
Sugars1.7 g
Dietary fiber2.6 g
0.37 g
2.82 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
3%
31 μg
3%
361 μg
1403 μg
Thiamine (B1)
6%
0.071 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
9%
0.117 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.639 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
11%
0.573 mg
Vitamin B6
10%
0.175 mg
Folate (B9)
16%
63 μg
Choline
3%
19 mg
Vitamin C
99%
89.2 mg
Vitamin E
5%
0.78 mg
Vitamin K
85%
101.6 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
4%
47 mg
Iron
4%
0.73 mg
Magnesium
5%
21 mg
Manganese
9%
0.21 mg
Phosphorus
5%
66 mg
Potassium
11%
316 mg
Sodium
1%
33 mg
Zinc
4%
0.41 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water89.3 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[23] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[24]

A 100 gram reference serving of raw broccoli provides 34 calories and is a rich source (20% or higher of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (107% DV) and vitamin K (97% DV) (table). Raw broccoli also contains moderate amounts (10–19% DV) of several B vitamins and the dietary mineral manganese, whereas other micronutrients are low in content (less than 10% DV). Raw broccoli is 89% water, 7% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). Along with this, broccoli is also great for weight loss because it is rich in fiber.

Cooking

Boiling substantially reduces the levels of broccoli glucosinolates, while other cooking methods, such as steaming, microwaving, and stir frying, have no significant effect on glucosinolate levels.[9]

Taste

The perceived bitterness of cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli varies from person to person, but the functional underpinnings of this variation are not known. Some research reports that the gene TAS2R38 may be responsible for bitter taste perception in broccoli.[25] Other factors, such as isothiocyanates and polyphenols, are also likely involved in bitterness perception.[26] In some varieties the normally bitter tasting compounds are in less volatile forms.

  • Furrow flood irrigation on a field of broccoli raised for seed in Yuma, Arizona.
    Furrow flood irrigation on a field of broccoli raised for seed in Yuma, Arizona.
  • Broccoli in flower
    Broccoli in flower
  • Sicilian purple broccoli
    Sicilian purple broccoli
  • Broccoli "giant", whose flowering head and stalk can reach a kilo.
    Broccoli "giant", whose flowering head and stalk can reach a kilo.

See also

References

  1. ^ Buck, P. A. (1956). "Origin and taxonomy of broccoli". Economic Botany. 10 (3): 250–253. doi:10.1007/bf02899000. S2CID 31365713.
  2. ^ Stephens, James. "Broccoli—Brassica oleracea L. (Italica group)". University of Florida. p. 1. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
  3. ^ "broccoli". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). 2004. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-87779-809-5. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  4. ^ a b c "Broccoli (and cauliflower) production in 2018, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
  5. ^ Maggioni, Lorenzo; Bothmer, Roland; Poulsen, Gert; Branca, Ferdinando (2010). "Origin and Domestication of Cole Crops (Brassica oleracea L.): Linguistic and Literary Considerations". Economic Botany. 64 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1007/s12231-010-9115-2. S2CID 2771884.
  6. ^ Nonnecke, Ib (November 1989). Vegetable Production. Springer-Verlag New York, LLC. p. 394. ISBN 978-0-442-26721-6.
  7. ^ a b c d e Stansell, Zachary; Björkman, Thomas (1 October 2020). "From landrace to modern hybrid broccoli: the genomic and morphological domestication syndrome within a diverse B. oleracea collection". Horticulture Research. 7 (1): 159. doi:10.1038/s41438-020-00375-0. ISSN 2052-7276. PMC 7528014. PMID 33082966.
  8. ^ a b Stansell, Zachary; Hyma, Katie; Fresnedo-Ramírez, Jonathan; Sun, Qi; Mitchell, Sharon; Björkman, Thomas; Hua, Jian (1 July 2018). "Genotyping-by-sequencing of Brassica oleracea vegetables reveals unique phylogenetic patterns, population structure and domestication footprints". Horticulture Research. 5 (1): 38. doi:10.1038/s41438-018-0040-3. ISSN 2052-7276. PMC 6026498. PMID 29977574.
  9. ^ a b Nugrahedi, Probo Y.; Verkerk, Ruud; Widianarko, Budi; Dekker, Matthijs (2015). "A Mechanistic Perspective on Process-Induced Changes in Glucosinolate Content in Brassica Vegetables: A Review". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 55 (6): 823–838. doi:10.1080/10408398.2012.688076. ISSN 1040-8398. PMID 24915330. S2CID 25728864.
  10. ^ Dixon, G.R. (2007). Vegetable brassicas and related crucifers. Wallingford: CABI. ISBN 978-0-85199-395-9.
  11. ^ Stansell, Zachary; Farnham, Mark; Björkman, Thomas (2019). "Complex Horticultural Quality Traits in Broccoli Are Illuminated by Evaluation of the Immortal BolTBDH Mapping Population". Frontiers in Plant Science. 10: 1104. doi:10.3389/fpls.2019.01104. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 6759917. PMID 31620146.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  12. ^ Bjorkman, T.; Pearson, K. J. (1 January 1998). "High temperature arrest of inflorescence development in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica L.)". Journal of Experimental Botany. 49 (318): 101–106. doi:10.1093/jxb/49.318.101. ISSN 0022-0957.
  13. ^ "Broccoli". rhs.org.uk (Royal Horticultural Society). Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  14. ^ Branca, Ferdinando (2008), Prohens, Jaime; Nuez, Fernando (eds.), "Cauliflower and Broccoli", Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae, Handbook of Plant Breeding, vol. 1, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 151–186, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30443-4_5, ISBN 978-0-387-30443-4, retrieved 28 November 2020
  15. ^ "The Best Broccoli Varieties to Grow Your Own |Gardeners Path". Gardener's Path. 28 June 2018.
  16. ^ "British research leads to UK-wide launch of Beneforté broccoli". Quadram Institute. 25 June 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  17. ^ "Broccoli". Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, US Department of Agriculture. 1 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
  18. ^ Smith, Powell (June 1999). "HGIC 1301 Broccoli". Clemson University. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
  19. ^ Branham, Sandra E.; Stansell, Zachary J.; Couillard, David M.; Farnham, Mark W. (1 March 2017). "Quantitative trait loci mapping of heat tolerance in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) using genotyping-by-sequencing". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 130 (3): 529–538. doi:10.1007/s00122-016-2832-x. ISSN 1432-2242. PMID 27900399. S2CID 2361874.
  20. ^ Liptay, Albert (1988). Broccoli.
  21. ^ editors, J. Richard and Joan E. Heitzman; Jim Rathert, principal photographer; Kathy Love and LuAnne Larsen (1996). Butterflies and moths of Missouri. Jefferson City, MO: Missouri Dept. of Conservation. ISBN 1-887247-06-8. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ May 4, Factsheet | HGIC 2203 | Updated; Download, 2020 | Print |. "Cabbage, Broccoli & Other Cole Crop Insect Pests". Home & Garden Information Center | Clemson University, South Carolina. Retrieved 28 November 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  24. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
  25. ^ "Human bitter perception correlates with bitter receptor messenger RNA expression in taste cells". Am J Clin Nutr. 98 (4): 1136–43. 2013. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.066688. PMC 3778862. PMID 24025627. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  26. ^ "Genetics and bitter taste responses to goitrin, a plant toxin found in vegetables". Chem Senses. 35 (8): 685–92. 2010. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjq061. PMID 20551074. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
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