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File:NordischNordic.JPG
Meyers Blitz-Lexikon (Leipzig, 1932) shows a famous German war hero (Karl von Müller) as an example of the Nordic type.

The Nordic race was one of the three sub-races into which the Caucasian race was divided by anthropologists in the first half of the 20th century. (The three sub-types being Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean.) People of the Nordic type were described as having blond or brown hair, light colored eyes, fair skin and tall stature, and were considered to predominate in countries of Northern Europe. The notion is today considered ideological rather than scientific.[1]

Nordicism (also "Nordic theory") is an ideology of racial supremacy that claims that a Nordic race, within the greater Caucasian race, constituted a master race.[2][3]

This ideology was popular in the late-19th and early 20th centuries in some Northern European countries as well as North America, and achieved mainstream success throughout Germany via National Socialism during the Third Reich.

Background ideas

Attitudes in ancient Europe

Most ancient writers were from the Southern European civilisations, and generally took the view that northerners were barbarians. Pale skin and light hair were described as signs of barbarism by Polemon of Laodicea in his book Physiognomica.[4] Pseudo-Aristotle[5] noted differences between Greeks and the people of the north, believing that Greek superiority was visible in their medium skin tone, as opposed to pale northerners and dark southerners and Africans. He claimed that blue eyes were a sign of a cowardly nature, and that they indicated poor eyesight.[6]

Despite this, Aphrodite was often depicted with blonde hair, as were deities associated with the sun.[7] Likewise, the Roman historian Tacitus idealized the Germanic tribes (which he considered autochthonous to their land) for qualities such as superior warlike ardor and chastity, in contrast to the Romans of his day - though his portrait is not unmixed - as he also portrays them as incurably lazy and addicted to gambling.[8][9]

Many Romans believed that fair features were beautiful. Wealthy Romans paid for blond and red wigs made from the hair of captured Germanics or Celts.[10]

Spanish Queen Isabella I of Castile shows "Nordic" characteristics: blonde hair, blue eyes, and pale skin.

Renaissance

During the Renaissance, blonde hair, blue eyes, and pale skin were regularly portrayed in literature as signs of beauty and were associated with noble moral qualities.[11] This imagery was largely aesthetic. It was not typically theorised in terms of racial difference, drawing instead on traditional symbolism of light as opposed to darkness.

Enlightenment

From the 17th century onwards, as Northern European countries became more powerful, Northern peoples began to adapt such aesthetic traditions into arguments for their own superiority. Benjamin Franklin proposed a clear distinction between "white" Europeans and "swarthy" Europeans, stating that immigration to the newly-born United States should favour the "white" Saxons and Englishmen rather than the "swarthy", Germans (except the Saxons), Italians, French, Russians, Spaniards, and Swedes.[12]

19th century racial thought

By the early-19th century these ideas were attached to emerging theories of racial hierarchy. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer attributed civilisational primacy to the "white races" who gained their sensitivity and intelligence by refinement in the rigorous north:

The highest civilisation and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands.[13]

Aryanism

File:Aug11 01.jpg
The Roman emperor Augustus. H.F.K. Günther (1927) argued that the description of Augustus in Suetonius' Lives of twelve Caesars suggested that he displayed "Nordic qualities" (e.g. that he was "fair", had "light eyes" and a "mild expression").[14]

Such arguments became especially significant when allied to the theory of Aryanism in the mid-19th century. This theory held that native speakers of the Indo-European languages ("Aryans") are an innately superior branch of humanity, responsible for most of its greatest achievements.

Its principal proponent was Arthur de Gobineau in his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1855). Though Gobineau did not equate Nordic peoples with Aryans, he argued that Germanic people were the best modern representatives of the Aryan race. Adapting the comments of Tacitus and other Roman writers, he argued that "pure" Northerners regenerated Europe after the Roman empire declined due to racial "dilution" of its leadership.

By the 1880s a number of linguists and anthropologists argued that the Aryans themselves had originated somewhere in northern Europe. Theodor Poesche proposed that the Aryans originated in the north in Rokitno, Poland, but it was Karl Penka who popularized the idea that the Aryans had emerged in Scandinavia, and could be identified by the distinctive Nordic characteristics of blond hair and blue eyes.

The distinguished biologist Thomas Henry Huxley agreed with him, coining the term "Xanthochroi" to refer to fair-skinned Europeans, as opposed to darker Mediterranean peoples, whom Huxley called "Melanochroi".[15][16] It was Huxley who also concluded that the Melanochroi (Peoples of the Mediterranean race), who he described as "dark whites", are of a mixture of the Xanthochroi and Australioids.[17]

This distinction was repeated by Charles Morris in his book The Aryan Race (1888), which argued that the original Aryans could be identified by their blond hair and other Nordic features, such as dolichocephaly (long skull). The argument was given extra impetus by the French anthropologist Vacher de Lapouge in his book L’Aryen, in which he argued that the "dolichocephalic-blond" peoples were natural leaders, destined to rule over more brachycephalic (short-skulled) peoples.[18]

The philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche also referred in his writings to "blond beasts": amoral adventurers who were supposed to be the progenitors of creative cultures.[19] In On the Genealogy of Morals (1887), he wrote, "In Latin malus ... could indicate the vulgar man as the dark one, especially as the black-haired one, as the pre-Aryan dweller of the Italian soil which distinguished itself most clearly through his colour from the blonds who became their masters, namely the Aryan conquering race."[20]

Physical traits

It was the Russian-born French anthropologist Joseph Deniker that initially proposed "Nordic" as a racial group. Deniker's use of Nordique was meant to simply translate as "Northern", and described what he called an "ethnic group" (a term that he coined).

He defined nordique by a set of physical characteristics: The concurrence of fair, somewhat wavy hair, light eyes, reddish skin, tall stature and a dolichocephalic skull.[21] Of six 'Caucasian' groups Deniker accommodated four into secondary ethnic groups, all of which he considered intermediate to the Nordic: Northwestern, Sub-Nordic, Vistula and Sub-Adriatic, respectively.[22][23]

American economist William Z. Ripley purported to define scientifically a "Teutonic race" in his book The Races of Europe (1899).[24] He divided Europeans into three main subcategories: Teutonic (teutonisch), Alpine and Mediterranean. According to Ripley the "Teutonic race" resided in Scandinavia, north Germany, Baltic states and East Prussia, north Poland, north Russia, in Benelux countries, Britain, Ireland, parts of Central and Southern Europe and was typified by "very light" hair, blue eyes, tall stature and a narrow, aquiline nose. Georges Vacher de Lapouge had called this race "Homo Europaeus". Madison Grant includes Northern Italy as an example of Nordics.[25]

Madison Grant, in his book The Passing of the Great Race, took up Ripley's classification. He described a "Nordic" or "Baltic" type:

"long skulled, very tall, fair skinned, with blond or brown hair and light colored eyes. The Nordics inhabit the countries around the North and Baltic Seas and include not only the great Scandinavian and Teutonic groups, but also other early peoples who first appear in southern Europe and in Asia as representatives of Aryan language and culture."[26]

According to Grant, the "Alpine race", shorter in stature, darker in colouring, with a rounder head, predominated in central/Eastern Europe through to Turkey and the Eurasian steppes of Central Asia and Southern Russia. The "Mediterranean race", with dark hair and eyes, aquiline nose, swarthy complexion, moderate-to-short stature, and moderate or long skull was said to be prevalent in Southern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.[27][28]

20th century

By 1902 the German archaeologist Gustaf Kossinna claimed to have identified the original Aryans (Proto-Indo-Europeans) with the north German Corded Ware culture, an argument that gained in currency over the following two decades. He placed the Indo-European Urheimat in Schleswig-Holstein, arguing that they had expanded across Europe from there.[29] By the early 20th century this theory was well established, though far from universally accepted. Sociologists were soon using the concept of a "blond race" to model the migrations of the supposedly more entrepreneurial and innovative components of European populations. As late as 1939 Carleton Coon wrote that "The Poles who came to the United States during the 19th century, and the early decades of the 20th, did not represent a cross-section of the Polish population, but a taller, blonder, longer-headed group than the Poles as a whole."[30] The "high brow"/"low brow" distinction, derived from such theories, also became enshrined in language.

"Expansion of the Pre-Teutonic Nordics" — From Madison Grant's The Passing of the Great Race, or the Racial Basis of European History (1916); Grant's conception of Nordic influence spreading over Europe in ancient times.
"Expansion of the Teutonic Nordics and Slavic Alpines" — Further Nordic expansion, as well as the Alpines. NB: Anthropological studies consistently identified Early Slavs to be actually dolicocephalic and fair haired, i.e. "Nordic".[31][32]
Madison Grant's map, from 1916, charting the "present distribution of European races", with the Nordic race shown in bright red; green indicates the Alpine race; yellow, the Mediterranean race.

It was the already mentioned work of sociologist/economist William Z. Ripley which popularized the idea of three biological European races. Ripley borrowed Deniker's terminology of Nordic (he had previously used the term "Teuton"); his division of the European races relied on a variety of anthropometric measurements, but focused especially on their cephalic index and stature.

Compared to Deniker, Ripley advocated a simplified racial view and proposed a single Teutonic race linked to geographic areas where Nordic-like characteristics predominate, and contrasted these areas to the boundaries of two other types, Alpine and Mediterranean, thus reducing the 'caucasoid branch of humanity' to three distinct groups.[33]

By the early 20th century, Ripley's tripartite Nordic/Alpine/Mediterranean model was well established. Most nineteenth-century race-theorists like Arthur de Gobineau, Otto Ammon, Georges Vacher de Lapouge, and Houston Stewart Chamberlain preferred to speak of "Aryans," "Teutons," and "Indo-Europeans" instead of "Nordic Race". The British German racialist Houston Stewart Chamberlain considered the Nordic race to be made up of Celtic and Germanic peoples, as well as some Slavs. Chamberlain called those people Celt-Germanic peoples, and his ideas would influence Adolf Hitler's Nazi ideology.

Only in the 1920s did a strong partiality for "Nordic" begin to reveal itself, and for a while the term was used almost interchangeably with Aryan.[34] Later, however, Nordic would not be co-terminous with Aryan, Indo-European or Germanic.[35] For example, the later Nazi minister for Food, Richard Walther Darré, who had developed a concept of the German peasantry as Nordic race, used the term 'Aryan' to refer to the tribes of the Iranian plains.[35]

The notion of a distinct northern European race was also rejected by several anthropologists on craniometric grounds. Rudolf Virchow attacked the claim following a study of craniometry, which gave surprising results according to contemporary scientific racist theories on the "Aryan race." During the 1885 Anthropology Congress in Karlsruhe, Virchow denounced the "Nordic mysticism," while Josef Kollmann, a collaborator of Virchow, stated that the people of Europe, be they German, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of various races," furthermore declaring that the "results of craniology" led to "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race".[36]

Coon (1939)

Carleton Coon in his book of 1939 The Races of Europe subdivided the Nordic race into three main types, "Corded", "Danubian" and "Keltic", besides a "Neo-Danubian" type[37] and a variety of Nordic types altered by Upper Palaeolithic or Alpine admixture.[38][39][40] "Exotic Nordics" are morphologically Nordic types that occur in places distant from the northwestern European center of Nordic concentration.[41]

Coon takes the Nordics to be a partially depigmented branch of the greater Mediterranean racial stock. He suggests that the Nordic type emerged as a result of a mixture of "the Danubian Mediterranean strain with the later Corded element". Hence his two main Nordic types show Corded and Danubian predominance, respectively .[42] The third "Keltic" or "Hallstatt" type, Coon takes to have emerged in the European Iron Age, in Central Europe, where it was subsequently mostly replaced, but "found a refuge in Sweden and in the eastern valleys of southern Norway."[43]

Coon further recognizes the following terminology of earlier authors:[44]

  • Fenno-Nordic, "a hypothetical eastern branch of the Nordic race"
  • Noric, "a blond, Dinaricized Nordic"
  • Osterdal type, "the classic Iron Age Nordic, as found today in the eastern valleys of Norway"
  • Sub-Nordic, "a racial group which would fall partly in the East Baltic and partly in the Neo-Danubian categories"
  • Trønderlagen type or Trønder type, "a variety of Nordic with an excessive Corded element and Upper Palaeolithic mixture"
  • Anglo-Saxon type, "a sub-type of Nordic which contains unreduced Upper Palaeolithic mixture"

Depigmentation theory

Coon's (1939) theory that the Nordic race was a depigmentated variation of the greater Mediterranean racial stock was also supported by his mentor Earnest Albert Hooton who in the same year published Twilight of Man, which notes: "The Nordic race is certainly a depigmented offshoot from the basic long-headed Mediterranean stock. It deserves separate racial classification only because its blond hair (ash or golden), its pure blue or gray eyes".[45]

Nordicism

Further information: Master race and Racial supremacy

By the early twentieth century the concept of a "masterly" Nordic race had become so familiar that the British psychologist William McDougall, writing in 1920, could say with confidence:

Among all the disputes and uncertainties of the ethnographers about the races of Europe, one fact stands out clearly — namely, that we can distinguish a race of northerly distribution and origin, characterized physically by fair colour of hair and skin and eyes, by tall stature and dolichocephaly (i.e. long shape of head), and mentally by great independence of character, individual initiative, and tenacity of will. Many names have been used to denote this type, ... . It is also called the Nordic type.[46]

Nordicists claimed that Nordics had formed upper tiers of ancient civilizations, even in the Mediterranean civilizations of antiquity, which had declined once this dominant race had been assimilated. Thus they argued that ancient evidence suggested that leading Romans like Nero, Sulla, and Cato were blond or red-haired[47][48][49][50]

Some Nordicists admitted the Mediterranean race was superior to the Nordic in terms of artistic ability. However, the Nordic race was regarded as superior on the basis that, although Mediterranean peoples were culturally sophisticated, it was the Nordics who were alleged to be the innovators and conquerors, having an adventurous spirit that no other race could match.

The Alpine race was usually regarded as inferior to both the Nordic and Mediterranean races, making up the traditional peasant class of Europe while Nordics occupied the aristocracy and led the world in technology, and Mediterraneans were regarded as more imaginative.[51]

Opponents of Nordicism rejected these arguments. The anti-Nordicist writer Giuseppe Sergi argued in his influential book The Mediterranean Race (1901) that there was no evidence that the upper tiers of ancient societies were Nordic, insisting that historical and anthropological evidence contradicted such claims. Sergi argued that Mediterraneans constituted "the greatest race in the world", with a creative edge absent in the Nordic race. According to him, they were the creators of all the major ancient civilizations, from Mesopotamia to Rome.

This argument was later repeated by C.G. Seligman, who wrote that "it must, I think, be recognized that the Mediterranean race has actually more achievement to its credit than any other".[52] Even Carleton Coon insisted that among Greeks "the Nordic element is weak, as it probably has been since the days of Homer...It is my personal reaction to the living Greeks that their continuity with their ancestors of the ancient world is remarkable, rather than the opposite."[53]

In the USA

President Coolidge signs the 1924 immigration act, restricting non Northern European immigration. John J. Pershing is on the President's right.

In the USA, the primary spokesman for Nordicism was the eugenicist Madison Grant. His 1916 book, The Passing of the Great Race, or the Racial Basis of European History about Nordicism was highly influential among racial thinking and government policy making.[54]

Grant used the theory as justification for immigration policies of the 1920s, arguing immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe represented a lesser type of European and their numbers in the United States should not be increased. Grant and others urged this as well as the complete restriction of non-Europeans, such as the Chinese and Japanese.

Grant argued the Nordic race had been responsible for most of humanity's great achievements, and admixture was "race suicide" and unless eugenic policies were enacted, the Nordic race would be supplanted by inferior races. Future president Calvin Coolidge agreed, stating "Biological laws tell us that certain divergent people will not mix or blend. The Nordics propagate themselves successfully. With other races, the outcome shows deterioration on both sides."[55]

The Immigration Act of 1924 was signed into law by President Coolidge. This was designed to reduce the number of Eastern and Southern European immigrants, exclude Asian immigrants altogether, and favor immigration from Northern and Western European countries such as Britain, Ireland and Germany.

The spread of these ideas also affected popular culture. F. Scott Fitzgerald invokes Grant's ideas through a character in part of The Great Gatsby, and Hilaire Belloc jokingly rhapsodied the "Nordic man" in a poem and essay in which he satirised the stereotypes of Nordics, Alpines and Mediterraneans.[56]

Writers such as Jack London, Robert E. Howard, and H. P. Lovecraft reflected Nordicist ideas in their fictions.

Nordic thought in Germany

In Germany, however, the influence of Nordicism remained powerful. There it was known under the term "Nordischer Gedanke" (Nordic thought).

This phrase was coined by the German eugenicists Erwin Baur, Eugen Fischer and Fritz Lenz. It appeared in their 1921 work Human Heredity, which insisted on the innate superiority of the Nordic race.[57]

Adapting the arguments of Schopenhauer and others to Darwinian theory, they argued that the qualities of initiative and will-power identified by earlier writers had arisen from natural selection, because of the tough landscape in which Nordic peoples evolved. This had ensured that weaker individuals had not survived.

This argument was derived from earlier eugenicist and Social Darwinist ideas. According to the authors, the Nordic race arose in the ice age, from,

quite a small group which, under stress of rapidly changing conditions (climate, beasts of the chase) was exposed to exceptionally rigorous selection and was persistently inbred, thus acquiring the peculiar characteristics which persist today as the exclusive heritage of the Nordic race....Philological, archaeological and anthropological researches combine to indicate that the primal home of the Indo-Germanic [i.e Aryan] languages must have been in Northern Europe.

They went on to argue that "the original Indo-Germanic civilization" was carried by Nordic migrants as far as India, and that the physiognomy of upper-caste Indians "disclose a Nordic origin".[58]

By this time, Germany was well-accustomed to theories of race and racial superiority due to the long presence of the Völkish movement, the philosophy that Germans constituted a unique people, or volk, linked by common blood. While Völkism was popular mainly among Germany's lower classes and was more a romanticized version of ethnic nationalism, Nordicism attracted German anthropologists and eugenicists.

Hans F. K. Günther, one of Fischer's students, first defined "Nordic thought" in his programmatic book Der Nordische Gedanke unter den Deutschen.[59] He became the most influential German in this field. His Short Ethnology of the German People (1929) was very widely circulated.

In his Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (Race-Lore of the German Volk), published 1922, Günther identified five principal European races instead of three, adding the East Baltic race and Dinaric race to Ripley's categories.[34] He used the term Ostic instead of Alpine.[34] He focused on their supposedly distinct mental attributes.

Günther criticised the Völkish idea, stating that the Germans were not racially unified, but were actually one of the most racially diverse peoples in Europe. Despite this, many Völkists who merged Völkism and Nordicism embraced Günther's ideas, most notably the Nazis.[60][61]

Nazi Nordicism

Further information: Nazism and race

Adolf Hitler read Human Heredity shortly before he wrote Mein Kampf, and called it scientific proof of the racial basis of civilization.[62] Its arguments were also repeated by the Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg, in his book The Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930).

Rosenberg argued that the Nordic race had evolved in a now-lost landmass off the coast of North Western Europe, and had migrated through Scandinavia and northern Europe, expanding further south, and as far as Iran and India where it founded the Aryan cultures of Zoroastrianism and Hinduism. Like Grant and others, he argued that the entrepreneurial energy of the Nordics had "degenerated" when they mixed with "inferior" peoples.

With the rise of Hitler, Nordic theory became the norm within German culture. In some cases the "Nordic" concept became an almost abstract ideal rather than a mere racial category. For example Hermann Gauch wrote in 1933 (in a book which was banned in the Third Reich[63]) that the fact that "birds can be taught to talk better than other animals is explained by the fact that their mouths are Nordic in structure." He further claimed that in humans, "the shape of the Nordic gum allows a superior movement of the tongue, which is the reason why Nordic talking and singing are richer."[64]

Such views were extreme, but more mainstream Nordic theory was institutionalized. Hans F. K. Günther, who joined the Nazi Party in 1932, was praised as a pioneer in racial thinking, a shining light of Nordic theory. Most official Nazi comments on the Nordic Race were based on Günther's works, and Alfred Rosenberg presented Günther with a medal for his work in anthropology.

Eugen Fischer and Fritz Lenz were also appointed to senior positions overseeing the policy of Racial Hygiene. Madison Grant's book was the first non-German book to be translated and published by the Nazi Reich press, and Grant proudly displayed to his friends a letter from Hitler claiming that the book was "his Bible."[65][66]

The Nazi state used such ideas about the differences between European races as part of their various discriminatory and coercive policies which culminated in the Holocaust. Ironically, in Grant's first edition of his popular book, he classified the Germans as being primarily Nordic, but in his second edition, published after the USA had entered World War I, he had re-classified the now enemy power as being dominated by "inferior" Alpines.

Günther's work agreed with Grant's, and the German anthropologist frequently stated that the Germans are definitely not a fully Nordic people. Hitler himself was later to downplay the importance of Nordicism in public for this very reason. The standard tripartite model placed most of the population of Hitler's Germany in the Alpine category, especially after the Anschluss.

J. Kaup led a movement opposed to Günther. Kaup took the view that a German nation, all of whose citizens belonged to a "German race" in a populationist sense, offered a more convenient sociotechnical tool than Günther's concept of an ideal Nordic type to which only a very few Germans could belong.

Nazi legislation identifying the ethnic and "racial" affinities of the Jews reflects the populationist concept of race. Discrimination was not restricted to Jews who belonged to the "Oriental-Armenoid" race, but was directed against all members of the Jewish ethnic population.[67]

The German Jewish journalist Kurt Caro (1905–1979) who emigrated to Paris in 1933 and served in the British army from 1943,[68] published a book under the pseudonym Manuel Humbert unmasking Hitler's "Mein Kampf" in which he stated the following racial composition of the Jewish population of Central Europe: 23,8% Lapponid race, 21,5% Nordic race, 20,3% Armenoid race, 18,4% Mediterranean race, 16,0% Oriental race.[69]

By 1939 Hitler had abandoned Nordicist rhetoric in favour of the idea that the German people as a whole were united by distinct "spiritual" qualities. Nevertheless, Nazi eugenics policies continued to favor Nordics over Alpines and other racial groups, particularly during the war when decisions were being made about the incorporation of conquered peoples into the Reich.[70][71][72]

In 1942 Hitler stated in private,

I shall have no peace of mind until I have planted a seed of Nordic blood wherever the population stand in need of regeneration. If at the time of the migrations, while the great racial currents were exercising their influence, our people received so varied a share of attributes, these latter blossomed to their full value only because of the presence of the Nordic racial nucleus.[73]

Hitler and Himmler planned to use the SS as the basis for the racial "regeneration" of Europe following the final victory of Nazism. The SS was to be a racial elite chosen on the basis of "pure" Nordic qualities.[74][75][76]

Addressing officers of the SS-Leibstandarte "Adolf Hitler" Himmler stated:

The ultimate aim for those 11 years during which I have been the Reichsfuehrer SS has been invariably the same: to create an order of good blood which is able to serve Germany; which unfailingly and without sparing itself can be made use of because the greatest losses can do no harm to the vitality of this order, the vitality of these men, because they will always be replaced; to create an order which will spread the idea of Nordic blood so far that we will attract all Nordic blood in the world, take away the blood from our adversaries, absorb it so that never again, looking at it from the viewpoint of grand policy, Nordic blood, in great quantities and to an extent worth mentioning, will fight against us.[77]

Post-Nazi re-evaluation and decline of Nordicism

Even before the rise of Nazism, Grant's concept of "race" lost favor in the USA in the polarizing political climate after World War I, including the Great Migration and the Great Depression. By the 1930s, criticism of the Nordicist model was growing in Britain and America. The British historian Arnold J. Toynbee in A Study of History (1934) argued that the most dynamic civilisations have arisen from racially mixed cultures. In southern Europe the theory understandably had less influence.

This required the abandonment of Grant's gradations of "white" in favour of the "One-drop theory" — which was embraced by white supremacists and black supremacists alike. Among the latter were Marcus Garvey, and, in part, W. E. B. Du Bois, at least in his later thought.[78]

With the rise of Nazism many critics pointed to the flaws in the theory, repeating the arguments made by Sergi and others that the evidence of ancient Nordic achievement is thin when set against the civilizations of the Mediterranean and elsewhere. The equation of Nordic and Aryan identity was also widely criticised.[79]

In 1936 M.W. Fodor, writing in The Nation, claimed that racialised Germanic nationalism arose from an inferiority complex:

No race has suffered so much from an inferiority complex as has the German. National Socialism was a kind of Coué method of converting the inferiority complex, at least temporarily, into a feeling of superiority.[80]

Some Lombard nationalists took it up in Italy, but even after the establishment of Benito Mussolini's fascist government racial theories were not prominent.[81] Mussolini stated, "Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist."[82]

After World War II, the categorization of peoples into "superior" and "inferior" groups fell even further out of political and scientific favor, eventually leading to the characterization of such theories as scientific racism. The tripartite subdivision of "Caucasians" into Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean groups persisted among some scientists into the 1960s, notably in Carleton Coon's book The Origin of Races (1962).

Already race academics such as A. James Gregor were heavily criticizing Nordicism. In 1961 Gregor called it a "philosophy of despair", on the grounds that its obsession with purity doomed it to ultimate pessimism and isolationism.[83]

As late as 1977 the Swedish author Bertil Lundman wrote a book The Races And Peoples Of Europe mentioning a "Nordid Race". The development of the Kurgan theory of Indo-European origins challenged the Nordicist equation of Aryan and Nordic identity, since it placed the earliest Indo-European speakers around central Asia and/or far-eastern Europe (although according the Kurgan hypothesis some Proto-Indo-Europeans did eventually migrate west into Northern Europe and become the ancestors of the Nordic peoples.)

The original German term used by Ripley, "Theodiscus", which is translated into English as Teutonic, has fallen out of favour amongst German-speaking scholars, and is restricted to a somewhat ironical usage similar to the archaic teutsch, if used at all. While the term is still present in English, which has retained it in some contexts as a translation of the traditional Latin Teutonicus (most notably the aforementioned Teutonic Order), it should not be translated into German as "Teutonisch" except when referring to the historical Teutones.

Depigmentation theory

The depigmentation theory received notable support from later anthropologists, thus in 1947 Melville Jacobs noted: "To many physical anthropologists Nordic means a group with an especially high percentage of blondness, which represent a depigmentated Mediterranean".[84] In her work Races of Man (1963, 2nd Ed. 1965) Sonia Mary Cole went further to argue that the Nordic race belongs to the "brunette Mediterrenean" Caucasoid division but that it differs only in its higher percentage of blonde hair and light eyes. The Harvard anthropologist Claude Alvin Villee, Jr. also was a notable proponent of this theory, writing: "The Nordic division, a partially depigmized branch of the Meditterranean group."[85] Collier's Encyclopedia as late as 1984 contains an entry for this theory, citing anthropological support.[86] Early 21st century genetic studies have provided new insights into the origins of Irish people as well as their neighbours from other parts of the British Isles. Correspondingly, researchers in the field have suggested that migrations from Prehistoric Iberia can be viewed as the primary source for their genetic material, having demonstrated marked similarities with modern representatives of the aforementioned time period in that of the Basque people. However, the majority of Irish males fall under the R1b sub-clade L-21, which is quite rare for Basques. [87][88]

Lundman (1977)

In his work The Races and Peoples of Europe (1977) the Swedish anthropologist Bertil Lundman introduced the term "Nordid" to describe the Nordic race, described as follows:

"The Nordid race is light-eyed, mostly rather light-haired, low-skulled and long-skulled (dolichocephalic), tall and slender, with more or less narrow face and narrow nose, and low frequency of blood type gene q. The Nordid race has several subraces. The most divergent is the Faelish subrace in western Germany and also in the interior of southwestern Norway. The Faelish subrace is broader of face and form. So is the North-Atlantid subrace (the North-Occidental race of Deniker), which is like the primary type, but has much darker hair. Above all in the oceanic parts of Great Britain the North-Atlantid subrace is also very high in blood type gene r and low in blood type gene p. The major type with distribution particularly in Scandinavia is here termed the Scandid or Scando-Nordid subrace."

Forensic anthropology

Some forensic scientists, pathologists and anthropologists up to the 1990s continued to use the tripartite division of Caucasoids: Nordic, Alpine, and Mediterranean, based on their cranial anthropometry. The anthropologist Wilton M. Krogman for example identified Nordic racial crania in her work "The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine" (1986) as being "dolichochranic".[89] In his work "Forensic Pathology", published in 1991, Bernard Knight, a Professor of Forensic Pathology, also uses the tripartite model and identifies the Nordic race based on its dolichocephalic skull shape.[90] Forensic anthropologists of the 21st century however no longer continue to use the tripartite division of Caucasoids, but instead only recognise Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid through analysis of skeletal remains and not subraces of these racial groups.[91]

21st century

In the 21st century there is unanimous agreement among anthopologists and biologists that completely "pure" races do not and have not existed, even though there is still considerable support for the other meaning of the race, including meaning race as a subspecies of human specie.[92][93] Current views of European anthropologists on race: influence of educational and ideological background.[94] In other words, there are not identifiable clades of humans that exactly correspond with any ethnic groups, although population genetics have identified some dominant clades among the ethno-linguistic groups. This opportunity for population genetics has reduced the degree of speculation about human prehistory and about the validity of early recorded history.

Genetic reality

The emergence of population genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined racial groups. A 2007 study on the genetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east-west axis of differentiation across Europe, separating the "indigenous" Basques and Sami from other European populations. Despite these stratifications it noted the unusually high degree of European homogeneity: "there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world."[95][96][97][98]

See also

Race and political movements:

Notes

  1. ^ see: Lutzhöft 1971: 13.
  2. ^ Gregor, A James (1960). "Nordicism Revisted". Phylon: 352–360.
  3. ^ The racial ideology of Nordicism should not be confused with the political movement of Nordism (Pan-Scandinavianism).
  4. ^ "Blond and whitish hair, like that of Scythians signifies stupidity, evilness, savagery", Physiognomica, 8.11-1; Isaac, Benjamin, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity, Princeton University Press, pp. 56-8
  5. ^ Evans, Elizabeth C. (Vol. 59, No. 5, 1969). Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  6. ^ Aristotle. "On The Generation Of Animals". Retrieved 2007-07-16. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  7. ^ Pitman, Joanna (2003 Edition). On Blondes. USA: Bloombury Press. pp. 24, 30–1, 36, 37–8. ISBN 1-58234-120-6. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  8. ^ Tacitus. "Germania". Retrieved 2007-07-16.
  9. ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Rachel (2001-5). "Tacitus, Roman historian". Retrieved 2007-07-16. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ Pitman, Joanna (2003 Edition). On Blondes. USA: Bloombury Press. pp. 12, 27, 32–37. ISBN 1-58234-120-6. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  11. ^ "Shakespeare's Sonnets". Retrieved 2007-07-16.
  12. ^ Franklin, Benjamin. "Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc". Retrieved 2007-07-16.
  13. ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur (1851). Parerga and Paralipomena. Vol. 2, Section 92. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Hans F.K. Günther', The Racial Elements in European History, Chapter VIII, part 3, The Nordic Race in History and Prehistory, Methuen, 1927. The original passage from Suetonius describes Augustus' hair as sufflavum "light blond" and his hair as claros ac nitidos "clear and bright" (in: Lives of twelve Caesars, ch. LXXIX).
  15. ^ Huxley, Thomas. "The Aryan Question". Retrieved 2007-07-16.
  16. ^ Huxley, Thomas. "On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind". Retrieved 2007-07-16.
  17. ^ Huxley, Thomas. On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006. aleph0.clarku.edu
  18. ^ Vacher de Lapouge (trans Clossen, C), Georges (1899). "Old and New Aspects of the Aryan Question". The American Journal of Sociology. 5 (3): 329–346. doi:10.1086/210895.
  19. ^ Detwiler, Bruce (1990). Nietzsche and the Politics of Aristocratic Radicalism. USA: University of Chicago Press. p. 113. ISBN 0-226-14354-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  20. ^ Nietzsche, Friedrich (1887). "On the Genealogy of Morals". Retrieved 2007-07-18.
  21. ^ Deniker, J., The Races of Man
  22. ^ Deniker, J. - Les Races de l'Europe (1899);The Races of Man (London: Walter Scott Ltd., 1900);Les Races et les Peuples de la Terre (Masson et Cie, Paris, 1926)
  23. ^ Deniker (J.) "Essai d'une classification des races humaines, basée uniquement sur les caractères physiques". Bulletins de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris. Volume 12 Numéro 12. 1889. pp. 320-336.
  24. ^ William Z. Ripley, in The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1899)
  25. ^ Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race, Scribner's sons, 1916, p.185
  26. ^ Madison Grant, "The Passing of the Great Race", Scribner's Sons, 1921, p. 167
  27. ^ John Higham (2002). Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925. Rutgers University Press. p. 273. ISBN 0-8135-3123-3.
  28. ^ Bryan S Turner (1998). The Early Sociology of Class. Taylor & Francis. p. 241. ISBN 0-415-16723-X.
  29. ^ Arvidsson, Stefan (2006). Aryan Idols. USA: University of Chicago Press. p. 143. ISBN 0-226-02860-7. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  30. ^ Coon, Carleton (1939). The Races of Europe, chapter 1, Theory and Principles of the Concept Race. USA: Macmillan. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  31. ^ From Kossina to Bromley. Ethnogenesis in Slavic Archaeology. Florin Curta. Pg 206. .. the local Slavs of the prehistoric period, as seen from the archaeological evidence, were fair haired people with elongated skulls
  32. ^ Carleton S Coon. The Races of Europe. Chapter VI, section 7 "Iron Age Peoples. "The evidence of literary sources makes the Slavs of nordic stature and pigmentation, that of osteology makes them the same in the metrical and morphological sense"
  33. ^ J.G. (1899). "review of The Races of Europe by William Z. Ripley". The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 29 (1/2): 188–189.
  34. ^ a b c Geoffrey G. Field, Nordic Racism, in: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 38, No. 3. (Jul. - Sep., 1977), pp. 523-540; JSTOR
  35. ^ a b Anna Bramwell. 1985. Blood and Soil: Richard Walther Darré and Hitler's "Green Party". Abbotsbrook, England: The Kensal Press. ISBN 0-946041-33-4, p. 39&40
  36. ^ Andrea Orsucci, "Ariani, indogermani, stirpi mediterranee: aspetti del dibattito sulle razze europee (1870-1914), Cromohs, 1998 Template:It icon
  37. ^ "de-Corded Nordic (and hence Danubian) prototype brachycephalized by Ladogan admixture." Plate 31: Neo-Danubians
  38. ^ Plate 32: Nordics Altered by Northwestern European Upper Palaeolithic Mixture: I
  39. ^ Plate 33: Nordics Altered by Northwestern European Upper Palaeolithic Mixture: II
  40. ^ Plate 34: Nordics Altered by Mixture with Southwestern Borreby and Alpine Elements
  41. ^ examples from eastern Russia, Albania, Portugal and North Africa; Plate 30: Exotic Nordics
  42. ^ Plate 27: The Nordic Race: Examples of Corded Predominance
  43. ^ The Nordic Race: Hallstatt and Keltic Iron Age Types
  44. ^ Coon (1939), "Appendix II.: Glossary"
  45. ^ Twilight of Man, Earnest Albert Hooton, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1939 p. 77.
  46. ^ McDougall, William (1973 edition). The Group Mind. USA: Arno Press. p. 159. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
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  49. ^ "Pluatarch,Life of Cato". 2008-5. Retrieved 2008-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  50. ^ "All these are roads taken by Nordic tribes: by the Phrygians to Troy and Asia Minor; by the Nordic Hellenes to Greece; by the Nordic Italics (Romans) to Italy; by the Nordic Kelts to France and Spain. To these lands these tribes bring their Indo-European languages, and as the ruling class force them on to the subject, mainly Mediterranean, lower orders.",.Günther, Hans F K (1927). "The Racial Elements of European History". Methuen. p. chaper 8, part one. Retrieved 2007-07-18.
  51. ^ According to Madision Grant, "The Nordics are, all over the world, a race of soldiers, sailors, adventurers, and explorers, but above all, of rulers, organizers, and aristocrats in sharp contrast to the essentially peasant character of the Alpines...The mental characteristics of the Mediterranean race are well known, and this race, while inferior in bodily stamina to both the Nordic and the Alpine, is probably the superior of both, certainly of the Alpines, in intellectual attainments." Grant accepts that Mediterraneans created Semitic and Egyptian cultures, but insisted that Greece was "invigorated" by Nordics, and that "Roman ideals of family life, loyalty, and truth, point clearly to a Nordic rather than to a Mediterranean origin" .Grant, Madison (1916). "The Passing of the Great Race". p. part 2, ch. 11; part 2, chapter 5. Retrieved 2007-07-18.
  52. ^ Seligman, C.G. (1924). "Presidential Address. Anthropology and Psychology: A Study of Some Points of Contact". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 54. Jan. - June: 30.
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  54. ^ Guterl, Matthew Pratt (2004). The Color of Race in America, 1900-1940. USA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01012-4.
  55. ^ Coolidge, Calvin (1921). "Whose Country is This?". Good Housekeeping: 14.
  56. ^ Belloc, Hilaire. "Talking (and singing) of the Nordic Man". Retrieved 2007-07-19.
  57. ^ Baur, E. (1921 (1923)). Grundlagen der menschlichen Erblichkeitslehre und Rassenhygiene. München: Lehmann. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link), Volume II, page 273 see: Lutzhöft 1971:15
  58. ^ Baur, Erwin; Fischer, Eugen; Lenz, Fritz (1931). Human Heredity. trans Eden and Cedar Paul. London: Allen and Unwin. p. 191.
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Further reading

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