Geography of Kuwait: Difference between revisions
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On the western side of the [[Al Rawdatayn]] geological formation, a freshwater [[aquifer]] was discovered in 1960 and became Kuwait's principal water source.<ref name=":0" /> The supply is insufficient to support extensive irrigation, but it is tapped to supplement the distilled water supply that fills most of the country's needs.<ref name=":0" /> The only other exploited aquifer lies in the permeable zone in the top of the limestone of the [[Ash Shuaybah]] field south and east of the city of Kuwait.<ref name=":0" /> Unlike water from the Al Rawdatayn aquifer, water from the Ash Shuaybah aquifer is brackish. Millions of liters a day of this water are pumped for commercial and household purposes.<ref name=":0" /> |
On the western side of the [[Al Rawdatayn]] geological formation, a freshwater [[aquifer]] was discovered in 1960 and became Kuwait's principal water source.<ref name=":0" /> The supply is insufficient to support extensive irrigation, but it is tapped to supplement the distilled water supply that fills most of the country's needs.<ref name=":0" /> The only other exploited aquifer lies in the permeable zone in the top of the limestone of the [[Ash Shuaybah]] field south and east of the city of Kuwait.<ref name=":0" /> Unlike water from the Al Rawdatayn aquifer, water from the Ash Shuaybah aquifer is brackish. Millions of liters a day of this water are pumped for commercial and household purposes.<ref name=":0" /> |
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==Water and marshes== |
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Kuwait is part of the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system]] basin.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-07891-0|title=Buffering the impacts of extreme climate variability in the highly engineered Tigris Euphrates river system}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJse5WYKvtMC&pg=PA144 |title=Design and impact of water treaties: Managing climate change |first= Matthew |last= Zentner |date=2012 |pages=144 |isbn=9783642237430 |quote=The Tigris-Euphrates-Shatt al Arab is shared between Iraq, Iran, Syria, Kuwait and Turkey.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://biorisk.pensoft.net/article/1829/download/pdf/|title=The Key Biodiversity Areas Project in Iraq: Objectives and scope 2004–2008|first=Clayton|last=Rubec|date=2009|page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/lower_tigris_euphrates |title=Lower Tigris & Euphrates|publisher=feow.org|date= 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022326/http://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/lower_tigris_euphrates|archive-date=17 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/441|title=Lower Tigris & Euphrates|publisher=feow.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/VE-IMG-4987|title=Mesopotamia|first=MODIS Rapid Response Team|last=Jacques Descloitres|date=3 February 2003|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref name="eu">{{cite web |url=http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU2011/EGU2011-11072.pdf |title=Hydrological response of past and future climate changes in the Euphrates-Tigris Basin|first= Deniz|last= Bozkurt|author2= Omer Lutfi Sen |date=2012 |pages=1 |quote=The Euphrates-Tigris Basin, covering areas in five countries (Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran and Kuwait), is a major water resource of the Middle East.}}</ref><ref name="eb">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tigris-Euphrates-river-system#/media/1/595616/546|title=Tigris-Euphrates river system |date=17 December 2017 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Several Tigris–Euphrates [[confluence]]s form parts of the Kuwait–Iraq border.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QifgYV59DK0C&pg=PA60 |title=Vortex of Conflict: U.S. Policy Toward Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq |first= Dan|last= Caldwel|date=2011 |pages=60|isbn=9780804777490}}</ref> [[Bubiyan Island]] is part of the [[Shatt al-Arab]] delta.<ref name="Ancient_Bubiyan">{{cite journal|first2=Robert|last2=Carter|first1=Linda|last1=Reinink-Smith|year=2022|title=Late Holocene development of Bubiyan Island, Kuwait|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research/article/abs/late-holocene-development-of-bubiyan-island-kuwait/FD3CB9742FC8B0A5EDE6EBAC8F15C301|journal=Quaternary Research|pages=1–23|doi=10.1017/qua.2022.3}}</ref> Kuwait is partially part of the [[Mesopotamian Marshes]].<ref name=Meso_Marsh>{{Cite web |title=The Structure and Function of Aquatic Microbial Communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BruXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4&dq}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/1002/1/012010/pdf|title=Analysis of the environmental reality of the marshes and its sustainable development|date=2022|page=7-15}}</ref><ref name=Mesopotamian_Marsh>{{Cite web |title=Swamp: Nature and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_1UDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT258&dq}}</ref> Kuwait does not currently have any permanent rivers within its territory. However, Kuwait does have several [[List of wadis of Kuwait|wadi]]s, the most notable of which is [[Wadi Al-Batin]] which forms the border between Kuwait and Iraq.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/place/Wadi-Al-Batin Wadi Al-Bāṭin].</ref> Kuwait also has several river-like marine channels around Bubiyan Island, most notably [[Khawr Abd Allah]] which is now an [[estuary]], but once was the point where the [[Shatt al-Arab]] emptied into the Persian Gulf. Khawr Abd Allah is located in southern Iraq and northern Kuwait, the [[Iraq-Kuwait border]] divides the lower portion of the estuary, but adjacent to the port of [[Umm Qasr]] the estuary becomes wholly Iraqi. It forms the northeast coastline of Bubiyan Island and the north coastline of [[Warbah Island]].<ref name=EB>{{cite encyclopedia|last=|first=|authorlink=|editor-first=|editor-last=|editor-link=|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title='Abd Allah Khawr|edition=15th|year=2010|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|volume=I: A-Ak - Bayes|location=Chicago, Illinois|isbn=978-1-59339-837-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/16 16]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/16}}</ref> |
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Kuwait relies on water [[desalination]] as a primary source of fresh water for drinking and domestic purposes.<ref name=scidi /><ref name=fao /> There are currently more than six desalination plants.<ref name=fao>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4356e/w4356e0g.htm|title=Irrigation in the near east region in figures|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]|access-date=12 March 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011071303/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4356e/w4356e0g.htm|archive-date=11 October 2016}}</ref> Kuwait was the first country in the world to use desalination to supply water for large-scale domestic use. The history of desalination in Kuwait dates back to 1951 when the first distillation plant was commissioned.<ref name=scidi>{{cite journal|first=Mohamed|last=F. Hamoda|title=Desalination and water resource management in Kuwait|date=September 2001|doi=10.1016/S0011-9164(01)00259-4|volume=138|issue=1–3|journal=Desalination|pages=165}}</ref> |
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Kuwait's fresh water resources are limited to groundwater, desalinated seawater, and treated wastewater effluents.<ref name=scidi /> There are three major municipal wastewater treatment plants.<ref name=scidi /> Most water demand is currently satisfied through seawater desalination plants.<ref name=scidi /><ref name=fao /> Sewage disposal is handled by a national sewage network that covers 98% of facilities in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beatona.net/CMS/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1560&Itemid=84&lang=en|title=Regulations of Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in Kuwait|publisher=Beatona|access-date=12 March 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219121906/http://www.beatona.net/CMS/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1560&Itemid=84&lang=en|archive-date=19 February 2016}}</ref> |
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== Human geography == |
== Human geography == |
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Revision as of 02:26, 15 June 2022
 | |
| Continent | Asia |
|---|---|
| Region | Middle East |
| Coordinates | 29°30′N 47°45′E / 29.500°N 47.750°E |
| Area | Ranked 152nd |
| • Total | 17,820 km2 (6,880 sq mi) |
| • Land | 100% |
| • Water | 0% |
| Coastline | 499 km (310 mi) |
| Highest point | Mutla Ridge 306 m (1,004 ft) |
| Lowest point | Persian Gulf 0 m (0 ft) |
| Longest river | No permanent rivers |
| Largest lake | None |
| Climate | Arid climate |
| Natural resources | Petroleum, fish, shrimp, natural gas |
| Natural hazards | Dust storms, sand storms, flash floods, thunderstorms |
| Environmental issues | Air pollution, water pollution, desertification, limited natural fresh water |
| Exclusive economic zone | 11,026 km2 (4,257 sq mi) |
Kuwait is a country in the Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Kuwait is located at the far northwestern corner of the Persian Gulf. Kuwait is 17,820 square kilometres in size. At its most distant points, it is about 200 km (120 mi) north to south, and 170 km (110 mi) east to west. Kuwait's area consists mostly of desert.
Boundaries and geographic features
As previously mentioned, Kuwait borders the Persian Gulf with 195 km (121 mi) of coast.[1] Within its territory are ten islands, two of which, Bubiyan (the largest) and Warbah, are strategically important.[1]
Kuwait's most prominent geographic feature is Kuwait Bay (Jun al Kuwayt), which indents the shoreline for about forty kilometers, providing natural protection for the port of Kuwait, and accounts for nearly one third of the country's shoreline.[1]
To the north and northwest, there is the historically contested border between Kuwait and Iraq.[1] Although the Iraqi government, which had first asserted a claim to rule Kuwait in 1938, recognized the borders with Kuwait in 1963 (based on agreements made earlier in the century), it continued to press Kuwait for control over Bubiyan and Warbah islands through the 1960s and 1970s.[1]
To the south and southwest, Kuwait shares a 250-km border with Saudi Arabia.[1] The boundary between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia was set by the Treaty of Al Uqayr in 1922, which also established the Saudi–Kuwaiti neutral zone of 5,700 square kilometers between the two nations.[1] In 1966, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia agreed to divide the neutral zone; the partitioning agreement making each country responsible for administration in its portion was signed in December 1969.[1] The resources in the area, now known as the Divided Zone, are not affected by the agreement.[1] The oil from onshore and offshore fields continues to be shared equally between the two countries.[1]
In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait and, shortly thereafter, formally incorporated the entire country into Iraq.[1] Under United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 687, after the restoration of Kuwaiti sovereignty in 1991, a UN commission undertook formal demarcation of the borders on the basis of those agreed to in 1963.[1] The boundary was demarcated in 1992.[1] Iraq initially refused to accept the commission's findings[1] but ultimately accepted them in November 1994.[2][3]
Climate
Kuwait has an arid climate.[1] Rainfall in the nation varies from 75 to 150 millimeters (2.95 to 5.91 in) a year.[1] Actual rainfall has ranged from 25 millimeters (0.98 in) a year to as much as 325 millimeters (12.8 in).[1] In summer, average daily high temperatures range from 42 to 46 °C (108 to 115 °F);[1] the highest ever temperature recorded in Kuwait was 54 °C (129 °F) at Mitribah on 21 July 2016 which is the highest recorded temperature in Asia and also the third highest in the world.[4][5] The summers are relentlessly long, punctuated mainly by dramatic dust storms in June and July when northwesterly winds cover the cities in sand.[1] In late summer, which is more humid, there are occasional sharp, brief thunderstorms.[1]
By November summer is over, and colder winter weather sets in, dropping temperatures to as low as 3 °C (37 °F) at night; daytime temperatures are in the upper 20s °C (upper 70s to low 80s °F).[1] Frost rarely occurs; rain is more common and falls mostly in the spring.[1]
Kuwait's winter is colder than in other Persian Gulf countries, such as Bahrain, Qatar or United Arab Emirates. Kuwait experiences colder weather because it is situated farther north, and because of cold winds blowing from upper Iraq and Iran.[6]
| Climate data for Kuwait City | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 29.8 (85.6) |
35.8 (96.4) |
41.2 (106.2) |
44.2 (111.6) |
49.0 (120.2) |
49.8 (121.6) |
52.1 (125.8) |
50.7 (123.3) |
47.7 (117.9) |
43.7 (110.7) |
37.9 (100.2) |
30.5 (86.9) |
52.1 (125.8) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 19.5 (67.1) |
21.8 (71.2) |
26.9 (80.4) |
33.9 (93.0) |
40.9 (105.6) |
45.5 (113.9) |
46.7 (116.1) |
46.9 (116.4) |
43.7 (110.7) |
36.6 (97.9) |
27.8 (82.0) |
21.9 (71.4) |
34.3 (93.7) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 8.5 (47.3) |
10.0 (50.0) |
14.0 (57.2) |
19.5 (67.1) |
25.4 (77.7) |
28.9 (84.0) |
30.7 (87.3) |
29.5 (85.1) |
26.2 (79.2) |
21.5 (70.7) |
14.5 (58.1) |
9.9 (49.8) |
19.9 (67.8) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −4.0 (24.8) |
−1.6 (29.1) |
−0.1 (31.8) |
6.9 (44.4) |
14.7 (58.5) |
20.4 (68.7) |
22.4 (72.3) |
21.7 (71.1) |
16.0 (60.8) |
9.4 (48.9) |
2.0 (35.6) |
−1.5 (29.3) |
−4.0 (24.8) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 30.2 (1.19) |
10.5 (0.41) |
18.2 (0.72) |
11.5 (0.45) |
0.4 (0.02) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
1.4 (0.06) |
18.5 (0.73) |
25.5 (1.00) |
116.2 (4.57) |
| Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 5 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 19 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 198.1 | 222.5 | 217.6 | 229.3 | 272.5 | 304.5 | 307.1 | 301.6 | 285.1 | 252.2 | 216.5 | 193.5 | 3,000.5 |
| Mean daily sunshine hours | 7.1 | 7.7 | 7.5 | 7.9 | 9.4 | 10.5 | 10.6 | 10.8 | 10.2 | 9.0 | 7.7 | 6.9 | 8.8 |
| Percent possible sunshine | 68 | 69 | 63 | 62 | 69 | 77 | 76 | 78 | 77 | 79 | 72 | 67 | 72 |
| Source: World Meteorological Organization (temperature and rainfall 1994–2008);[7] NOAA (sunshine and records, 1961–1990);[8] Wundergound (2012 records)[9] | |||||||||||||
Geology and aquifers
The land was formed in a recent geologic era. In the south, limestone rises in a long, north-oriented dome that lies beneath the surface.[1] It is within and below this formation that the principal oil fields, Kuwait's most important natural resource, are located.[1] In the west and north, layers of sand, gravel, silt, and clay overlie the limestone to a depth of more than 210 meters.[1] The upper portions of these beds are part of a mass of sediment deposited by a great wadi whose most recent channel was the Wadi al Batin, the broad shallow valley forming the western boundary of the country.[1]
On the western side of the Al Rawdatayn geological formation, a freshwater aquifer was discovered in 1960 and became Kuwait's principal water source.[1] The supply is insufficient to support extensive irrigation, but it is tapped to supplement the distilled water supply that fills most of the country's needs.[1] The only other exploited aquifer lies in the permeable zone in the top of the limestone of the Ash Shuaybah field south and east of the city of Kuwait.[1] Unlike water from the Al Rawdatayn aquifer, water from the Ash Shuaybah aquifer is brackish. Millions of liters a day of this water are pumped for commercial and household purposes.[1]
Water and marshes
Kuwait is part of the Tigris–Euphrates river system basin.[10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17] Several Tigris–Euphrates confluences form parts of the Kuwait–Iraq border.[18] Bubiyan Island is part of the Shatt al-Arab delta.[19] Kuwait is partially part of the Mesopotamian Marshes.[20][21][22] Kuwait does not currently have any permanent rivers within its territory. However, Kuwait does have several wadis, the most notable of which is Wadi Al-Batin which forms the border between Kuwait and Iraq.[23] Kuwait also has several river-like marine channels around Bubiyan Island, most notably Khawr Abd Allah which is now an estuary, but once was the point where the Shatt al-Arab emptied into the Persian Gulf. Khawr Abd Allah is located in southern Iraq and northern Kuwait, the Iraq-Kuwait border divides the lower portion of the estuary, but adjacent to the port of Umm Qasr the estuary becomes wholly Iraqi. It forms the northeast coastline of Bubiyan Island and the north coastline of Warbah Island.[24]
Kuwait relies on water desalination as a primary source of fresh water for drinking and domestic purposes.[25][26] There are currently more than six desalination plants.[26] Kuwait was the first country in the world to use desalination to supply water for large-scale domestic use. The history of desalination in Kuwait dates back to 1951 when the first distillation plant was commissioned.[25]
Kuwait's fresh water resources are limited to groundwater, desalinated seawater, and treated wastewater effluents.[25] There are three major municipal wastewater treatment plants.[25] Most water demand is currently satisfied through seawater desalination plants.[25][26] Sewage disposal is handled by a national sewage network that covers 98% of facilities in the country.[27]
Human geography
The bulk of the Kuwaiti population lives in the coastal capital of the city of Kuwait. Smaller populations inhabit the nearby city of Al Jahrah, smaller desert and coastal towns, and, prior to the Persian Gulf War, some of the several nearby gulf islands, notably Faylakah.[1]
Area boundaries
- Area
-
- Total: 17,818 km²
- Land: 17,818 km²
- Water: 0 km²
- Area—comparative
- Slightly smaller than Fiji
- Land boundaries
-
- Total: 475 km
- Border countries: Iraq 254 km, Saudi Arabia 221 km
- Coastline
- 499 km
- Maritime claims
- Exclusive Economic Zone
- 11,026 km2 (4,257 sq mi)
- Territorial sea: 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi)
- Elevation extremes
-
- Lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
- Highest point: Mutla Ridge 306 m
Resources and land use
- Natural resources
- Petroleum, fish, shrimp, natural gas
- Land use
-
- Arable land: 0.6%
- Permanent crops: 0.3%
- Permanent pasture: 7.6%
- Forest: 0.4%
- Other: 91.1% (2011)
- Irrigated land
- 86 km² (2007)
- Total renewable water resources
- 0.02 km3 (2011)
- Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)
-
- Total: 0.91 km3/yr (47%/2%/51%)
- Per capita: 441.2 m3/yr (2005)
Environmental concerns
- Natural hazards
- Sudden cloudbursts are common from October to April – they bring heavy rain which can damage roads and houses; sandstorms and dust storms occur throughout the year, but are most common between March and August
- Environment—current issues
- Limited natural fresh water resources; some of world's largest and most sophisticated desalination facilities provide much of the water; air and water pollution; desertification
- Environment—international agreements
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Crystal, Jill (1994). "Kuwait: Geography". In Metz, Helen Chapin (ed.). Persian Gulf states: country studies (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 47–50. ISBN 0-8444-0793-3. OCLC 29548413.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ "Iraq". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2000. Archived from the original on 11 December 2000. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
- ^ Crossette, Barbara (11 November 1994). "Iraqis to accept Kuwait's borders". The New York Times. p. A1.
- ^ "WMO verifies 3rd and 4th hottest temperature recorded on Earth". public.wmo.int/en. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). 18 June 2019. Archived from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
- ^ "Upgraded HWRF and GFDL Hurricane Models Excelled During Hurricane Arthur". Weather Underground. USA: Dr. Jeff Masters. 11 July 2014. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
- ^ "Surveying and Establishment of a Comprehensive Database for the Marine Environment of Kuwait eMISK" (PDF).
- ^ "World Weather Information Service – Kuwait City". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
- ^ "Kuwait International Airport Climate Normals 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
- ^ "Dr. Jeff Masters' article published January 2013". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2015.
- ^ "Buffering the impacts of extreme climate variability in the highly engineered Tigris Euphrates river system".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Zentner, Matthew (2012). Design and impact of water treaties: Managing climate change. p. 144. ISBN 9783642237430.
The Tigris-Euphrates-Shatt al Arab is shared between Iraq, Iran, Syria, Kuwait and Turkey.
- ^ Rubec, Clayton (2009). "The Key Biodiversity Areas Project in Iraq: Objectives and scope 2004–2008": 40.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Lower Tigris & Euphrates". feow.org. 2013. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015.
- ^ "Lower Tigris & Euphrates". feow.org.
- ^ Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team (3 February 2003). "Mesopotamia" – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Bozkurt, Deniz; Omer Lutfi Sen (2012). "Hydrological response of past and future climate changes in the Euphrates-Tigris Basin" (PDF). p. 1.
The Euphrates-Tigris Basin, covering areas in five countries (Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran and Kuwait), is a major water resource of the Middle East.
- ^ "Tigris-Euphrates river system". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 December 2017.
- ^ Caldwel, Dan (2011). Vortex of Conflict: U.S. Policy Toward Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq. p. 60. ISBN 9780804777490.
- ^ Reinink-Smith, Linda; Carter, Robert (2022). "Late Holocene development of Bubiyan Island, Kuwait". Quaternary Research: 1–23. doi:10.1017/qua.2022.3.
- ^ "The Structure and Function of Aquatic Microbial Communities".
- ^ "Analysis of the environmental reality of the marshes and its sustainable development". 2022: 7-15.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Swamp: Nature and Culture".
- ^ Wadi Al-Bāṭin.
- ^ "'Abd Allah Khawr". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. I: A-Ak - Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010. pp. 16. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
- ^ a b c d e F. Hamoda, Mohamed (September 2001). "Desalination and water resource management in Kuwait". Desalination. 138 (1–3): 165. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(01)00259-4.
- ^ a b c "Irrigation in the near east region in figures". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
- ^ "Regulations of Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in Kuwait". Beatona. Archived from the original on 19 February 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
- This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook. CIA.
